<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE article
  PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.1 20151215//EN" "https://jats.nlm.nih.gov/publishing/1.1/JATS-journalpublishing1.dtd">
<article article-type="review-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="es" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">av</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>Abanico veterinario</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Abanico vet</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">2007-428X</issn>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2448-6132</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sergio Martínez González</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.21929/abavet2021.47</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="other">00503</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artículos de revisión</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Bioquímica y vías metabólicas de polisacáridos, lípidos y proteínas</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9720-1516</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Pacheco-Gómez</surname>
						<given-names>Verónica</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"><sup>*</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6315-5371</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Caballero-Zamora</surname>
						<given-names>Alejandra</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4916-0967</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Martínez-González</surname>
						<given-names>Sergio</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8802-0177</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Prado-Rebolledo</surname>
						<given-names>Omar</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7716-210X</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>García-Casillas</surname>
						<given-names>Arturo</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>**</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Estudiante de Maestría en Ciencias Agropecuarias, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana. México.</institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Estudiante de Maestría en Ciencias Agropecuarias</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana</institution>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Departamento de Producción Agrícola y Animal, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana. México. </institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Departamento de Producción Agrícola y Animal</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana</institution>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3">
				<label>3</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Unidad Académica de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Autónoma de Nayarit. México. </institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Universidad Autónoma de Nayarit</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Unidad Académica de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Autónoma de Nayarit</institution>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff4">
				<label>4</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad de Colima. México. </institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Universidad Tecnologica de Mexico</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad de Colima</institution>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1">
					<label><sup>*</sup></label>Autor responsable: Pacheco-Gómez Verónica. Calzada del Hueso 1100, Col. Villa Quietud, Delegación Coyoacán, CP. 04960 Ciudad de México. México. </corresp>
				<corresp id="c2"><sup>**</sup>Autor de correspondencia: García-Casillas Arturo. Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad de Colima. Kilómetro 40 Carretera Colima-Manzanillo, S/N, Tecomán, Colima. México. CP 28100. E-mail:<email>veropach86@yahoo.com.mx</email>,<email>acaballeroz@correo.xoc.uam.mx</email>, <email>sergio.martinez@uan.edu.mx</email>, <email>omarpr@ucol.mx</email>, <email>cesargarciacasillas@hotmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>28</day>
				<month>02</month>
				<year>2022</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<season>Jan-Dec</season>
				<year>2021</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>11</volume>
			<elocation-id>e503</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>03</day>
					<month>08</month>
					<year>2021</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>15</day>
					<month>12</month>
					<year>2021</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
					<license-p>Este es un artículo publicado en acceso abierto bajo una licencia Creative Commons</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>RESUMEN</title>
				<p>Las células eucariotas son estructuras complejas, capaces de replicarse y realizar una amplia gama de tareas en organismos multicelulares. Sin embargo, también obedecen las leyes de la química y la física que determinan el metabolismo de los sistemas vivos. En consecuencia, la biología celular busca comprender los procesos metabólicos en términos de reacciones de anabolismo y catabolismo molecular. Esta revisión considera la composición química y las propiedades de los polisacáridos, lípidos y proteínas como responsables en última instancia de todas las actividades celulares. Los átomos y enlaces bioquímicos de estas macromoléculas determinan toda la dinámica celular, por lo que en la primera parte de cada capítulo se repasa la naturaleza de los grupos funcionales hidroxilo, amino y carboxilo, responsables de la formación de monosacáridos, aminoácidos y ácidos grasos. El resto de cada capítulo analiza la génesis y lisis de estas moléculas dentro de cada organelo celular, para la formación de acetil- Coenzima A y la liberación de su energía en el ciclo de Krebs. Así, la bioquímica del metabolismo celular, puede entenderse en términos de las estructuras y funciones de tres principales moléculas orgánicas.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
				<title>Palabras clave:</title>
				<kwd>glucogenogénesis</kwd>
				<kwd>glucólisis</kwd>
				<kwd>lipogénesis</kwd>
				<kwd>lipólisis</kwd>
				<kwd>proteogénesis</kwd>
				<kwd>proteólisis</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="34"/>
				<table-count count="0"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="113"/>
				<page-count count="1"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<def-list id="d1">
			<title>ABREVIATURAS</title>
			<def-item>
				<term>Aa</term>
				<def>
					<p>aminoácidos</p>
				</def>
			</def-item>
			<def-item>
				<term>Ac</term>
				<def>
					<p>acetona</p>
				</def>
			</def-item>
			<def-item>
				<term>AcAc</term>
				<def>
					<p>acetoacetato</p>
				</def>
			</def-item>
			<def-item>
				<term>ADN</term>
				<def>
					<p>desoxirribonucleico</p>
				</def>
			</def-item>
			<def-item>
				<term>AGNE</term>
				<def>
					<p>ácidos grasos no esterificados</p>
				</def>
			</def-item>
			<def-item>
				<term>Arg</term>
				<def>
					<p>arginina</p>
				</def>
			</def-item>
			<def-item>
				<term>ARNm</term>
				<def>
					<p>ribonucleico mensajero</p>
				</def>
			</def-item>
			<def-item>
				<term>ARNt</term>
				<def>
					<p>ribonucleico de transferencia</p>
				</def>
			</def-item>
			<def-item>
				<term>C</term>
				<def>
					<p>carbono</p>
				</def>
			</def-item>
			<def-item>
				<term>C=O </term>
				<def>
					<p>grupo carbonilo</p>
				</def>
			</def-item>
			<def-item>
				<term>C16:0 </term>
				<def>
					<p>palmítico</p>
				</def>
			</def-item>
			<def-item>
				<term>C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>3</sub>O<sub>3</sub></term>
				<def>
					<p>piruvato</p>
				</def>
			</def-item>
			<def-item>
				<term>Ca<sup>2+</sup></term>
				<def>
					<p>ion calcio</p>
				</def>
			</def-item>
			<def-item>
				<term>CO<sub>2</sub></term>
				<def>
					<p>dióxido de carbono</p>
				</def>
			</def-item>
			<def-item>
				<term>COCH<sub>3</sub></term>
				<def>
					<p>grupo acetilo</p>
				</def>
			</def-item>
			<def-item>
				<term>COOH</term>
				<def>
					<p>grupo carboxilo</p>
				</def>
			</def-item>
			<def-item>
				<term>Gln</term>
				<def>
					<p>glutamina</p>
				</def>
			</def-item>
			<def-item>
				<term>GLU</term>
				<def>
					<p>glucosa</p>
				</def>
			</def-item>
			<def-item>
				<term>H</term>
				<def>
					<p>hidrógeno</p>
				</def>
			</def-item>
			<def-item>
				<term>H<sub>2</sub>O</term>
				<def>
					<p>agua</p>
				</def>
			</def-item>
			<def-item>
				<term>HCO</term>
				<def>
					<p>anión hidrógenocarbonato</p>
				</def>
			</def-item>
			<def-item>
				<term>N</term>
				<def>
					<p>nitrógeno</p>
				</def>
			</def-item>
			<def-item>
				<term>NADPH+H<sup>+</sup></term>
				<def>
					<p>nicotinamida adenina dinucleótido fosfato</p>
				</def>
			</def-item>
			<def-item>
				<term>NH<sub>2</sub></term>
				<def>
					<p>grupo amino</p>
				</def>
			</def-item>
			<def-item>
				<term>NH <sup>+</sup></term>
				<def>
					<p>ion amonio</p>
				</def>
			</def-item>
			<def-item>
				<term>O</term>
				<def>
					<p>oxígeno</p>
				</def>
			</def-item>
			<def-item>
				<term>OH</term>
				<def>
					<p>grupo hidroxilo</p>
				</def>
			</def-item>
			<def-item>
				<term>PO <sup>2−</sup></term>
				<def>
					<p>grupo fosfato</p>
				</def>
			</def-item>
			<def-item>
				<term>TAG</term>
				<def>
					<p>triacilgliceroles</p>
				</def>
			</def-item>
			<def-item>
				<term>β-HBA </term>
				<def><p>β-hidroxibutirato</p></def>
			</def-item>
		</def-list>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>INTRODUCCIÓN</title>
			<p>Las células eucariontes están compuestas de agua, iones inorgánicos y miles de moléculas
				orgánicas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Cooper, 2019b</xref>). Que participan en
				sistemas para extraer, transformar y utilizar energía del medio ambiente (<xref
					ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">Tortora <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019b</xref>). Lo
				que permite a los organismos realizar trabajos mecánicos, químicos, osmóticos y
				eléctricos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Ameer <italic>et</italic> al.,
					2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">Rodwell, 2018</xref>a; <xref
					ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">Melo &amp; Cuamatzi, 2019</xref>). La mayoría de estas
				moléculas orgánicas pertenecen a una de tres clases de polímeros: i) polisacáridos,
				ii) lípidos y iii) proteínas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Fails &amp; Magee,
					2018a</xref>). Estos polímeros constituyen entre el 80 y 90% del peso de la
				mayoría de las células (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">Pavlinov <italic>et
						al.</italic>, 2019</xref>) y están formados por la unión (polimerización) de
				varios componentes químicos de bajo peso molecular: carbohidratos, ácidos grasos y
				aminoácidos, respectivamente (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Guoyao, 2017c</xref>).
				La interacción entre estos componentes es dinámica; los cambios en un componente
				provocan cambios de coordinación o compensación en otro (<xref
					ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">Tortora <italic>et
					al.</italic>, 2019b</xref>). La bioquímica es quien describe en términos moleculares,
				este conjunto de interacciones (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">Pol <italic>et
						al.</italic>, 2014</xref>). Considerando dos vías metabólicas de manera
				principal: i) catabolismo para obtener acetil-Coenzima A (<xref ref-type="bibr"
					rid="B100">Tortora &amp; Derrickson, 2018b</xref>) y ii) anabolismo para
				adquirir moléculas más grandes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Pol <italic>et
						al.</italic>, 2014; Engelking, 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71"
					>Menzies <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>). Contribuyendo así, con
				conocimientos y aplicaciones prácticas en la medicina (<xref ref-type="bibr"
					rid="B43">Gundu, 2020</xref>), la agricultura (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74"
					>Milani <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>), la nutrición (<xref
					ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">Preethi &amp; Sekar 2021</xref>) y la industria (<xref
					ref-type="bibr" rid="B112">Wu <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). Pero su
				principal preocupación es la célula como organismo vivo (<xref ref-type="bibr"
					rid="B23">Cooper, 2019a</xref>).</p>
			<p>Por lo tanto, esta revisión ofrece una descripción general de la dinámica molecular en la interfaz del metabolismo de polisacáridos, lípidos y proteínas, para fundamentar las bases de la biología celular.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>PROPIEDADES FISICOQUÍMICAS DE LOS POLISACÁRIDOS</title>
			<p>Los polisacáridos son moléculas orgánicas formadas por más de diez monosacáridos, unidos
				mediante enlaces <italic>O</italic>-glucosídicos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B113"
					>Yang <italic>et al.</italic>, 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"
					>Guoyao, 2017c</xref>). Su fórmula general contiene átomos de carbono
					(<bold>C</bold>) hidratados con moléculas de agua (<bold>H</bold>
				<sub>2</sub>
				<bold>O</bold>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Bender &amp; Mayes, 2018c</xref>c.
				Por lo tanto, presentan solubilidad en este fluido y su clasificación se establece
				con base a la posición de su grupo carbonilo (<bold>C=O</bold>) (Chavarría &amp;
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Cárabez, 2018</xref>). Formado por un átomo de C
				unido a un átomo de oxígeno (<bold>O</bold>) mediante un doble enlace (<xref
					ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Cooper, 2019</xref>b). Si el grupo C=O se localiza en
				el extremo de la molécula, es una aldosa. Si el grupo C=O se localiza en medio de la
				molécula, es una cetosa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">Mckee &amp; Mckee,
					2014a</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Delbianco <italic>et al.</italic>,
					2016</xref>).</p>
			<p>Los polisacáridos son la principal fuente biológica de almacenamiento y consumo de energía
					(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Chavarría &amp; Cárabez, 2018</xref>) y forman
				parte de la estructura orgánica de todos los seres vivos (<xref ref-type="bibr"
					rid="B25">Cooper, 2019c</xref>). Su ingreso en el organismo, es a partir del
				alimento y su hidrólisis (ruptura de enlaces <italic>O</italic>-glucosídicos) por
				amilasas producidas en las parótidas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Kumar &amp;
					Chakravarty, 2018</xref>), y glucógeno fosforilasas y glucosa-6-fosfatasas,
				producidas por las células acinares del páncreas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"
					>Boticario &amp; Cascales, 2012</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Cárabez
						<italic>et al.</italic>, 2018a</xref>). Posterior a esta hidrólisis se
				libera al monómero glucosa (<bold>GLU</bold>), con la fórmula química
					C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Bender
					&amp; Mayes, 2018</xref>b), para ser absorbida por medio del epitelio intestinal
					(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Fails &amp; Magee, 2018a</xref>) y distribuida
				por el torrente sanguíneo a los diferentes tejidos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"
					>Dashty, 2013</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">Oosterveer &amp;
					Schoonjans, 2014</xref>), donde presenta cinco principales vías metabólicas: i)
				glucogenogénesis, ii) ruta de las pentosas fosfato iii) glucogenólisis, iv)
				glucólisis y v) glucogénesis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Appleton <italic>et
						al.</italic>, 2013</xref>a; Nelson &amp; Cox, 2017b).</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>ANABOLISMO DEL GLUCÓGENO (GLUCOGENOGÉNESIS)</title>
			<p>La glucogenogénesis se lleva a cabo en miocitos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Engelking,
					2015</xref>) y hepatocitos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">Tortora &amp;
					Derrickson, 2018b</xref>), donde la GLU ingresa al citoplasma, para ser
				fosforilada [adición de un grupo fosfato (<bold>PO</bold>
				<sub>4</sub>
				<sup>2</sup>
				<bold>−</bold>)], a partir de adenosina trifosfato (<bold>ATP</bold>) (<xref
					ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">Rui, 2014</xref>) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1"
					>Figura 1</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f1">
					<label>Figura 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Síntesis de glucosa-6-fosfato </title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e503-gf1.gif"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>La glucosa-6-fosfato resultante, abunda en el citoplasma de todas las células (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Litwack, 2018a</xref>) y cuando sus niveles son elevados, la fosfoglucomutasa transfiere el grupo PO<sub>4</sub>
 <sup>2</sup>− del C6 al C1 sintetizando glucosa-1-fosfato (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Delbianco <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>). La uridina trifosfato, interacciona con glucosa-1-fosfato, formando uridina difosfato glucosa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Fox <italic>et al.</italic>, 2017</xref>). La insulina, activa a la glucógeno sintasa 1 expresada en miocitos y/o la glucógeno sintasa 2 expresada en hepatocitos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Gadupudi <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>), para que el grupo hidroxilo (<bold>OH</bold>) de la uridina difosfato glucosa se fije al glucógeno (creando un enlace <italic>O</italic>- glucosídico), alargando al polisacárido (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>). </p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f2">
					<label>Figura 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Glucogenogénesis. Detalle del enlace <italic>O</italic>-glucosídico</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e503-gf2.gif"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>RUTA DE LAS PENTOSAS FOSFATO</title>
			<p>Este proceso tiene lugar en el citoplasma y se divide en dos, la fase oxidativa y la fase no oxidativa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">Tortora &amp; Derrickson, 2018b</xref>). La fase oxidativa, presenta de tres reacciones: i) la glucosa-6-fosfato es deshidrogenada [pierde 2 hidrógenos (<bold>H</bold>)] (Nelson &amp; Cox, 2017b). Como producto se obtiene 6-fosfogluconolactona y una molécula de nicotinamida adenina dinucleótido fosfato (<bold>NADPH+H+</bold>), y ii) la 6-fosfogluconolactona es hidrolizada y como producto se obtiene 6-fosfoglucanato (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Lee <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019</xref>) y iii) el 6- fosfoglucanato es descarboxilado [eliminación del grupo carboxilo (<bold>COOH</bold>)] (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Mckee &amp; Mckee, 2014b</xref>). Como producto se obtiene ribulosa-5-fosfato (cetopentosa), una molécula de NADPH+H<sup>+</sup> y dióxido de carbono (<bold>CO</bold>
 <sub>2</sub>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">Stincone <italic>et al.</italic>, 2015</xref>).</p>
			<p>Durante la fase no oxidativa la ribulosa-5-fosfato, puede presentar isomerización y ser transformada en otra molécula que posee los mismos átomos, pero dispuestos de forma distinta (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Madigan <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019a</xref>). En otra palabras, cambia de posición su grupo C=O para convertirse en a ribosa 5-fosfato (aldopentosa) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Cárabez <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018b</xref>). Por lo tanto, las principales funciones de la ruta de las pentosas fosfato son: i) sintetizar monosacáridos de cinco C y ii) generar NADPH+H+ (Nelson &amp; Cox, 2017b).</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>CATABOLISMO DEL GLUCÓGENO (GLUCOGENÓLISIS)</title>
			<p>Este proceso tiene lugar en el citoplasma de casi todas las células, aunque de manera especial
				en los miocitos del músculo y en los hepatocitos del hígado (<xref ref-type="bibr"
					rid="B69">Mckee &amp; Mckee, 2014c</xref>). Cuando los niveles de GLU en la
				sangre son bajos, la adrenalina o epinefrina en el músculo y el glucagón en el
				hígado, activan las proteínas quinasas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Ahern,
					2019d</xref>), y éstas realizan la fosforilación a glucógeno fosforilasa, por lo
				que esta enzima se activa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">Mckee &amp; Mckee,
					2014c</xref>). La glucógeno fosforilasa cataliza la transferencia de un
				ortofosfato inorgánico en el C1 del glucógeno (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Fox
						<italic>et al.</italic>, 2017</xref>), y este cambio rompe el enlace
					<italic>O</italic>-glucosídico y libera glucosa-1-fosfato (<xref ref-type="fig"
					rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>). La glucosa-1-fosfato es transformada en
				glucosa-6-fosfato, transfiriendo el grupo PO<sub>4</sub>
				<sup>2</sup>− del C1 al C6 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Ahern, 2019d</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f3">
					<label>Figura 3</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Glucogenólisis y síntesis de glucosa-1-fosfato</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e503-gf3.gif"/>
				</fig>
			</p></sec>
			<sec>
				<title>CATABOLISMO DE LA GLUCOSA (GLUCÓLISIS)</title>
				<p>Este proceso consiste en la degradación de la glucosa-6-fosfato para obtener acetil- Coenzima A, a partir del piruvato (C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>3</sub>O<sub>3</sub>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Ferrier, 2017</xref>b). Se lleva a cabo en el citoplasma donde la glucosa-6-fosfato (aldohexosa), presenta isomerización (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">Mckee &amp; Mckee, 2014</xref>c) y es transformada en fructosa-6-fosfato (cetohexosa) al cambiar de lugar su grupo C=O (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 4</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f4">
					<label>Figura 4</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Isomerización de glucosa-6-fosfato a fructosa-6-fosfato</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e503-gf4.jpg"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p> La fructosa-6-fosfato, es fosforilada (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figura 5</xref>), a partir de ATP en los C1 y C6 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">Tortora et al., 2019a</xref>), para dar lugar a la fructosa-1,6-bifosfato (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Delbianco et al., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Ferrier, 2017a</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f5">
					<label>Figura 5</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Síntesis de fructosa-1,6-bifosfato</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e503-gf5.gif"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>Posteriormente la fructosa-1,6-bifosfato (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 6</xref>) es dividida en dos: i) gliceraldehido- 3-fosfato y ii) dihidroxiacetona fosfato (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">Melo &amp; Cuamatzi, 2019</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f6">
					<label>Figura 6</label>
					<caption>
						<title>División de fructosa-1,6-bifosfato</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e503-gf6.jpg"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>El gliceraldehido-3-fosfato es oxidado y fosforilado, en los C1 y C3 formando 1,3-
				bifosfoglicerato (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">Mckee &amp; Mckee, 2014c</xref>)
					(<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 7</xref>). Posteriormente, transfiere su
				grupo PO42−, para sintetizar ATP (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Ahern,
				2019b</xref>) y se transforma en 3-fosfoglicerato (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104"
					>Voet et al., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">Tortora &amp;
					Derrickson, 2018b</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f7">
					<label>Figura 7</label>
					<caption>
						<title>De gliceraldehido-3-fosfato a 3-fosfoglicerato</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e503-gf7.jpg"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>El 3-fosfoglicerato presenta isomerización y su grupo PO42− cambia del C3 al C2, transformado
				la molécula en 2-fosfoglicerato (Nelson &amp; Cox, 2017b). A continuación la enolasa
				propicia la formación de un enlace doble (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">Voet et
					al., 2016</xref>), eliminando una molécula de H2O y formando fosfoenolpiruvato
					(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Guoyao, 2017f</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr"
					rid="B14">Bender &amp; Mayes, 2018a</xref>) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8"
					>Figura 8</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f8">
					<label>Figura 8</label>
					<caption>
						<title>De 3-fosfoglicerato a fosfoenolpiruvato</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e503-gf8.jpg"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>El fosfoenolpiruvato transfiere su grupo PO42− (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Cárabez et
					al., 2018a</xref>), para sintetizar ATP (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Ahern,
						2019b</xref>) y se transforma en C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>3</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Botham
					&amp; Mayes, 2018d</xref>), molécula que es atraída hacia la matriz
				mitocondrial, utilizando la fuerza protón-motriz generada por la cadena respiratoria
					(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Fails &amp; Magee, 2018b</xref>; <xref
					ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Madigan et al., 2019c</xref>) (<xref ref-type="fig"
					rid="f9">Figura 9</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f9">
					<label>Figura 9</label>
					<caption>
						<title>De fosfoenolpiruvato a piruvato</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e503-gf9.jpg"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
				<p>El destino del C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>3</sub>O<sub>3</sub> que se produjo en la glucólisis,
				depende de la disponibilidad de O. En condiciones anaeróbicas el
					C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>3</sub>O<sub>3</sub> presenta reducción adicionando átomos de
				H para formar láctico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">Tortora &amp; Derrickson,
					2018b</xref>). En condiciones aeróbicas el
					C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>3</sub>O<sub>3</sub> presenta descarboxilación y su grupo
				COOH se libera como CO<sub>2</sub> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">Stincone et al.,
					2015</xref>) , el resto de la molécula presenta oxidación, para formar el grupo
				acetilo (COCH<sub>3</sub>). Por último la Coenzima A, se transfiere al grupo
					COCH<sub>3</sub> formando acetil-Coenzima A (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"
					>Guoyao, 2017f</xref>) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 10</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f10">
					<label>Figura 10</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Descarboxilación oxidativa de piruvato</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e503-gf10.jpg"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>PROPIEDADES FISICOQUÍMICAS DE LOS LÍPIDOS</title>
			<p>Los lípidos constituyen un depósito de almacenamiento energético en los adipocitos (<xref
					ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Guoyao, 2017a</xref>). Participan en la formación de
				membranas fosfolipídicas de las células eucariontes y sus organelos (<xref
					ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">Schoeler &amp; Caesar, 2019</xref>). En el torrente
				sanguíneo, transportan vitaminas liposolubles p. ej., la A para la formación de
				tejidos blandos y mucosas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Botham &amp; Mayes,
					2018c</xref>), la D para la absorción del ion calcio (Ca<sup>2+</sup>) (<xref
					ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Jameson, 2017</xref>), la E como antioxidante y
				formación de eritrocitos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Madigan et al.,
					2019c</xref>) y la K que contribuye en la coagulación (<xref ref-type="bibr"
					rid="B44">Guoyao, 2017a</xref>). Además actúan como aislante térmico en los
				tejidos subcutáneos para retener el calor corporal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66"
					>Mas, 2018b</xref>).</p>
			<p>Su ingreso en el organismo, es a partir del alimento y su hidrólisis (ruptura de enlaces éster) por lipasas y esterasas producidas por las células acinares del páncreas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Ahern, 2019c</xref>). Posterior a esta hidrólisis se liberan ácidos grasos no esterificados (AGNE) y triacilgliceroles (TAG) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">Tortora et al., 2019a</xref>), para ser absorbidos por medio del epitelio intestinal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">Pol et al., 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Guoyao, 2017d</xref>), y transportados hacia los hepatocitos del hígado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Botham &amp; Mayes, 2018c</xref>). Donde son empaquetados en lipoproteínas de muy baja densidad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">Wadhera et al., 2016</xref>), para su posterior exportación hacia los tejidos periféricos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107">Wang et al., 2016</xref>). Los AGNE obtenidos durante dicho proceso, son necesarios para sintetizar acetil-Coenzima A (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Appleton et al., 2013d</xref>).</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>ANABOLISMO DEL TRIACILGLICEROL (LIPOGÉNESIS)</title>
			<p>La lipogénesis inicia en la mitocondria, con la producción de acetil-Coenzima A (<xref
					ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Cooper, 2019a</xref>). Debido a que la membrana de la
				mitocondria es impermeable al paso de acetil- Coenzima A (<xref ref-type="bibr"
					rid="B40">Friedman &amp; Nunnari, 2014</xref>), se requiere del sistema
				tricarboxilato (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">Figura 11</xref>) y de la citrato
				sintasa para convertirla en citrato (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">Nunes-Nesi et
					al., 2013</xref>), por medio de la fijación de C (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"
					>Ameer et al., 2018</xref>), de este modo se asegura su ingreso al citoplasma
				celular (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Botham &amp; Mayes, 2018c</xref>). A
				continuación, el citrato es trasformado nuevamente en acetil-Coenzima A por la
				ATP-citrato liasa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">Nunes-Nesi et al., 2013</xref>;
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Botham &amp; Mayes, 2018c</xref>), obteniendo oxaloacetato y adenosina difosfato (<xref
					ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">Mas, 2018a</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100"
						>Tortora &amp;</xref> Derrickson, 2018a).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f11">
					<label>Figura 11</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Sistema tricarboxilato y anabolismo de lípidos</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e503-gf11.jpg"/>
					<attrib>Fuente: (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">García et al., 2020).</xref>
					</attrib>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>La lipogénesis es un proceso endergónico, por lo tanto, la acetil-Coenzima A debe ser activada
				mediante carboxilación a través de su unión con el anión hidrógenocarbonato (HCO3-)
				en una reacción que consume ATP (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Botham &amp; Mayes,
					2018a</xref>), catalizada por la acetil-CoA carboxilasa (<xref ref-type="bibr"
					rid="B25">Cooper, 2019b</xref>). Como resultado, la acetil-Coenzima A se
				convierte en malonil-Coenzima A (Nelson &amp; Cox, 2017c). Por su parte, el
				oxaloacetato es reducido por malato deshidrogenasa a malato, y éste a su vez
				convertido en C3H3O3 por medio de la enzima málica, produciendo NADPH+H+ (<xref
					ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Appleton et al., 2013e</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr"
					rid="B27">Dashty, 2013</xref>). Posteriormente el ácido graso requiere
				elongación, mediante el complejo proteico ácido graso sintasa (<xref ref-type="bibr"
					rid="B85">Pol et al., 2014</xref>). Este complejo realiza condensación,
				reducción, deshidratación y nuevamente reducción, acoplando grupos de
				malonil-Coenzima A con acetil-Coenzima A (Nelson &amp; Cox, 2017c). Las dos
				reducciones mencionadas, requieren de NADPH+H+ (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"
					>Dashty, 2013</xref>), y durante la elongación se van añadiendo grupos de dos C
				al ácido graso, sintetizando siempre al hexadecanoico o palmítico (C16:0), como
				producto final (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Guoyao, 2017d</xref>).
				Posteriormente, el C16:0 es liberado del complejo proteico y puede ser elongado
				introduciendo C en su cadena, para producir otras moléculas de ácidos grasos más
				grandes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Botham &amp; Mayes, 2018c</xref>), y/o
				insaturado introduciendo enlaces dobles en su cadena (<xref ref-type="bibr"
					rid="B23">Cooper, 2019a</xref>). La síntesis de TAG, se lleva a cabo en el
				retículo endoplasmático liso (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">Quintero,
				2014</xref>).</p>
			<p>Una vez que se obtienen diferentes AGNE, el enlace éster de los lípidos, se establece mediante
				la unión de los tres grupos OH del glicerol (Nelson &amp; Cox, 2017c) (<xref
					ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figura 12</xref>), y el grupo COOH (la parte polar) de
				tres ácidos grasos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Botham &amp; Mayes,
				2018c</xref>c). Este enlace es una condensación o deshidratación donde se pierden 3
				moléculas de H<sub>2</sub>O (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">Smith, 2020b</xref>).
				Debido a esta unión, los grupos polares unidos al carbohidrato no son accesibles
					(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">Pratt et al., 2016</xref>). En consecuencia, se
				forman moléculas no polares o hidrofóbicas, altamente insolubles en agua (<xref
					ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Dowhan &amp; Bogdanov, 2016</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f12">
					<label>Figura 12</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Formación de triacilglicerol con enlace éster</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e503-gf12.jpg"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>CATABOLISMO DEL TRIACILGLICEROL (LIPÓLISIS) Y CETOGÉNESIS</title>
			<p>Cuando las reservas de glucógeno en el citoplasma de miocitos y hepatocitos disminuyen, se
				activa la carnitina palmitoiltransferasa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Longo et
					al., 2016</xref>), estimulando el transporte de AGNE hacia el interior de la
				mitocondria hepática (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">Merritt et al., 2020</xref>;
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B108">Wang et al., 2020</xref>). Donde la
				β-oxidación, conduce a una descarboxilación de los AGNE (<xref ref-type="bibr"
					rid="B106">Wanders et al., 2020</xref>), el grupo COOH se libera como
					CO<sub>2</sub> y el resto de la molécula presenta deshidrogenación,
				estableciendo el grupo COCH<sub>3</sub> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Botham
					&amp; Mayes, 2018b</xref>). La Coenzima A, se transfiere al grupo
					COCH<sub>3</sub> y forma acetil-Coenzima A (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48"
					>Guoyao, 2017f</xref>). Esta molécula se combina con oxaloacetato para su
				ingreso al ciclo de Krebs (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Appleton et al.,
					2013c</xref>). Si su oxidación es completa, se liberará CO<sub>2</sub> y pares de átomos de
				H (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Friedman &amp; Nunnari, 2014</xref>), que donarán
				sus electrones para efectuar reacciones de óxido reducción (<xref ref-type="bibr"
					rid="B63">Madigan et al., 2019</xref>c), la formación de H<sub>2</sub>O y almacenamiento de
				energía en forma de ATP (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Jump, 2011</xref>).</p>
			<p>Sin embargo, si el oxaloacetato no es suficiente, la acetil-Coenzima A se acumula dentro de la
				mitocondria (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Longo et al., 2016</xref>).
				Posteriormente dos moléculas de acetil-Coenzima A reaccionan para formar
				acetoacetil-CoA, en una reacción catalizada por tiolasa (<xref ref-type="bibr"
					rid="B72">Merritt et al., 2018</xref>). El acetoacetil-CoA se condensa con otra
				molécula de acetil-Coenzima A, para formar β-hidroxi-β-metilglutaril-CoA (<xref
					ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">Mas, 2018a</xref>). A partir de esta molécula se
				metaboliza acetoacetato (AcAc), cuerpo cetónico que sale de la mitocondria y en el
				citoplasma del hepatocito puede reducirse a β-hidroxibutirato (β-HBA) (<xref
					ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">Selvaraj et al., 2020</xref>) o descarboxilarse lenta
				y espontáneamente hasta acetona (Ac) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Deemer et al.,
					2020</xref>).</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>PROPIEDADES FISICOQUÍMICAS DE LAS PROTEÍNAS</title>
			<p>De las tres biomoléculas discutidas, las proteínas son las únicas que contienen átomos de nitrógeno (N) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Ferrier, 2017c</xref>). Están constituidas por la combinación de 20 aminoácidos (aa) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Ahern, 2019a</xref>), unidos mediante un enlace peptídico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Guoyao, 2017b</xref>). Este enlace de tipo covalente, une el grupo amino (NH2) de un aa y el grupo COOH de otro, con la formación de una molécula de H2O (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Madigan et al., 2019b</xref>). Las proteínas participan activamente en la homeostasis celular (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Cooper, 2019b</xref>), p. ej., transportando O (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Guoyao, 2017b</xref>), estructurando inmunoglobulinas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">Kenneth &amp; Casey, 2017</xref>) y constituyendo enzimas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Ahern, 2019c</xref>).</p>
			<p>Su ingreso en el organismo, es a partir del alimento y su hidrólisis (ruptura de enlaces
				peptídicos) por peptidasas o proteasas y aminotransferasas, producidas por las
				células acinares del páncreas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Ahern, 2019c</xref>).
				Posterior a esta hidrólisis se liberan aa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">Rodwell,
					2018a</xref>), para ser absorbidos por medio del epitelio intestinal (<xref
					ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Guoyao, 2017e</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84"
					>Piña &amp; Flores, 2018)</xref>, y transportados hacia los hepatocitos del
				hígado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Appleton et al., 2013b</xref>), para su
				posterior exportación hacia los tejidos periféricos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"
					>Fernández &amp; Peimbert, 2018</xref>).</p>
			<p>Dentro del citoplasma celular, los aa pueden perder su grupo NH<sub>2</sub> y como esqueletos
				carbonados funcionar como: i) substrato para sintetizar C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>3</sub>O<sub>3</sub> y posteriormente
				acetil- Coenzima A (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Appleton et al., 2013d</xref>),
				ii) estructurar purinas y neurotransmisores (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91"
					>Rodwell, 2018b</xref>) y iii) participar en la proteogénesis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90"
						>Rodwell, 2018a</xref>;
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Madigan et al., 2019b</xref>) o en la
				ureogénesis (Nelson &amp; Cox, 2017a) principalmente.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>ANABOLISMO DE LAS PROTEÍNAS (PROTEOGÉNESIS)</title>
			<p>La proteogénesis (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13">Figura 13</xref>), comienza en el núcleo
				celular (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">Noller, 2017</xref>), con la transcripción
				del ribonucleico de transferencia (ARNt) (Nelson &amp; Cox, 2017d; <xref
					ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Madigan etal., 2019d</xref>). Posteriormente, la
				enzima ARN-polimerasa realiza la transcripción del ribonucleico mensajero (ARNm) a
				partir de una secuencia de desoxirribonucleico (ADN) (<xref ref-type="bibr"
					rid="B58">Liu et al., 2013</xref>), que sirve como patrón o molde de la
				información genética (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Litwack, 2018b</xref>). El
				ARNm se transporta hasta el retículo endoplasmático rugoso y a sus ribosomas (<xref
					ref-type="bibr" rid="B110">Weil, 2018b</xref>). Durante la iniciación, se forma
				un puente entre la subunidad ribosómica menor y la mayor (<xref ref-type="bibr"
					rid="B109">Weil, 2018a</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f13">
					<label>Figura 13</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Proteogénesis, transcripción y traducción proteica</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e503-gf13.jpg"/>
					<attrib>Fuente: (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">García et al., 2020</xref>). </attrib>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>Por su parte, el ARNt (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f14">Figura 14</xref>), tienen que unirse con diferentes aminoacil-ARNt- sintetasas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">Rodnina &amp; Wintermeyer, 2016</xref>), para exponer el grupo NH<sub>2</sub> de sus bases nitrogenadas (citosina, guanina, adenina y uracilo) y fijar el grupo COOH de los diferentes aa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">Smith, 2020a</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f14">
					<label>Figura 14</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Ribonucleico de transferencia y su relación con aminoácidos en el citoplasma</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e503-gf14.jpg"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>Los aa transportados en el ARNt ingresan en el complejo ribosomal que presenta dos sitios de
				unión: i) el sitio P o peptidil y ii) el sitio A o aminoacil (<xref ref-type="bibr"
					rid="B15">Berk et al., 2006</xref>). La traducción se lleva a cabo en los
				ribosomas, mediante la lectura de tripletes (de tres en tres nucleótidos) llamados:
				codón para el ARNm y anticodón para el ARNt (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50"
					>Ingolia, 2014</xref>). La primera etapa de traducción, comienza cuando el
				extremo 5' del ARNm se inserta en la subunidad ribosómica menor (Nelson &amp; Cox,
				2017d), exponiendo el codón iniciador adenina-uracilo-guanina o AUG para su unión
				con el primer anticodón uracilo-adenina- citosina o UAC, en el sitio peptidil (<xref
					ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Angov, 2011</xref>), originando metionina como primer
				aa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Madigan et al., 2019d</xref>).</p>
			<p>Posteriormente, cuando el sitio peptidil y el sitio aminoacil están ocupados simultáneamente,
				la enzima peptidil transferasa establece un enlace peptídico entre los aa,
				insertando el primero en el segundo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B110">Weil,
					2018a</xref>). A continuación, en la elongación codón y anticodón se van
				asociando de manera precisa según la complementariedad de sus bases (<xref
					ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Dutta &amp; Nandi, 2012</xref>), y esta secuencia de
				pasos es repetida según el número de aa que contenga el polipéptido (<xref
					ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Madigan et al., 2019b</xref>). Como terminación de
				este proceso, se traducen diferentes proteínas y enzimas principalmente hidrolasas
					(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98">Swiderek et al., 2015</xref>).</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>CATABOLISMO DE LAS PROTEÍNAS (PROTEÓLISIS) Y UREOGÉNESIS</title>
			<p>Posterior a la digestión gástrica y enzimática de las proteínas, la ruptura de sus enlaces peptídicos, y la liberación y absorción de aa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">Piña &amp; Flores, 2018</xref>), se obtiene también ion amonio (NH4+) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">Rodwell, 2018a</xref>). Esta molécula viaja al hígado, donde su primer contacto es con los hepatocitos periportales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Guoyao, 2017e</xref>), que poseen en su estructura enzimas ureagénicas encargadas de la síntesis de urea (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f15">Figura 15</xref>). En la mitocondria de los hepatocitos periportales, se condensan HCO<sub>3</sub>-, NH<sub>4</sub>+ y ATP (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Appleton et al., 2013b</xref>) para formar carbamil fosfato (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Friedman &amp; Nunnari, 2014</xref>). La ornitina ingresa a la mitocondria y el carbamil fosfato cede su grupo carbamilo para formar citrulina (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B111">Weiner et al., 2015</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f15">
					<label>Figura 15</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Ureogénesis</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e503-gf15.jpg"/>
					<attrib>Fuente: (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">García et al., 2020</xref>).</attrib>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>La citrulina sale de la mitocondria al citoplasma, donde se une al aspartato, formando arginosuccinato (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">Menzies et al., 2016</xref>). El arginosuccinato es dividido en dos: i) arginina (Arg) y ii) fumarato. La Arg es hidrolizada por la arginasa liberando urea y ornitina (Nelson &amp; Cox, 2017a). Esta última entra en la mitocondria para iniciar otra vuelta en el ciclo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">Rodwell, 2018a</xref>). La urea por su parte, puede viajar al riñón (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Guoyao, 2017b</xref>) y ser excretada en orina (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">Marini &amp; van Amburgh, 2003</xref>). El ion NH<sub>4</sub>+ que no es metabolizado en urea, tiene contacto con los hepatocitos perivenosos, que poseen en su estructura glutamina sintetasa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">Piña &amp; Flores, 2018</xref>), que convierte ion NH4+ en glutamina (Gln). Este aa polar o hidrofílico, presenta afinidad por el H<sub>2</sub>O (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Appleton et al., 2013b</xref>). Por lo tanto, favorece el transporte y excreción del ion NH<sub>4</sub>+ en la orina (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">Rodwell, 2018a</xref>).</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>ANABOLISMO DE ADENOSINA TRIFOSFATO (CICLO DE KREBS)</title>
			<p>El ciclo de Krebs fue descubierto por Hans Adolf Krebs (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"
					>Appleton et al., 2013c</xref>). Forma parte del intercambio gaseoso
				mitocondrial (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Madigan et al., 2019c</xref>) y
				permite liberar la energía almacenada del acetil-Coenzima A en forma del nucleótido
				ATP (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Botham &amp; Mayes, 2018d</xref>). El
				acetil-Coenzima A sede su grupo COCH3 para unirse con oxaloacetato y formar citrato
				mediante una reacción de condensación (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">Menzies et
					al., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">Verschueren et al.,
					2019</xref>). Durante una vuelta completa del ciclo y a través de hidrólisis,
				descarboxilación oxidativa e hidratación (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f16">Figura
					16</xref>), el citrato se convierte de nuevo en oxaloacetato (<xref
					ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Appleton et al., 2013d</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f16">
					<label>Figura 16</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Ciclo de Krebs</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e503-gf16.jpg"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>Los átomos de C que se liberan en el proceso forman CO<sub>2</sub> (<xref ref-type="bibr"
					rid="B63">Madigan <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019c</xref>). El ciclo de Krebs
				consume por cada vuelta un acetil-Coenzima A y tres NAD+ (Nelson &amp; Cox, 2017e).
				Produce por cada vuelta dos CO<sub>2</sub> y tres NADPH+H<sup>+</sup> (<xref
					ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Friedman &amp; Nunnari, 2014</xref>). Por cada
				acetil-Coenzima A que ingresa en el ciclo de Krebs se producen 12 ATP (<xref
					ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Appleton <italic>et al.</italic>, 2013c</xref>), cada
				uno formado por una base nitrogenada púrica o purina (adenina), unida a una ribosa
				(aldopentosa) y a tres PO<sub>4</sub><sup>2</sup>− (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Botham
					&amp; Mayes, 2018a</xref>) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f17">Figura
				17</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f17">
					<label>Figura 17</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Nucleótido adenosina trifosfato (ATP)</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e503-gf17.jpg"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>Por cada GLU (C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub>) que ingresa en el ciclo se producen dos C3H3O3, que a su vez producen dos acetil-Coenzima A (Nelson &amp; Cox, 2017e). Por lo tanto, por cada GLU (C6H12O6) que ingresa en el ciclo de Krebs se producen cuatro CO<sub>2</sub>, seis NADPH+H<sup>+</sup> y 24 moléculas de ATP (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Friedman &amp; Nunnari, 2014</xref>).</p>
			<p>La información presentada en párrafos anteriores, muestra cómo las biomoléculas que constituyen los organismos vivos, interactúan para mantener y perpetuar la vida, gobernada por las mismas leyes físicas y químicas que gobiernan el universo inerte. La frontera del conocimiento, se organizó en torno a principios o cuestiones centrales de la bioquímica y cómo las células utilizan un conjunto relativamente pequeño de metabolitos basados en carbono para crear moléculas poliméricas, estructuras supramoleculares y depósitos de información. La estructura química de estos componentes define su función celular, cuyo resultado final es la transformación y la autoperpetuación de esa compilación de biomoléculas, en resumen, la vida.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>CONCLUSIONES</title>
			<p>Las células eucariontes están compuestas de agua, iones inorgánicos y moléculas orgánicas. Contienen cadenas carbonadas con grupos funcionales hidroxilo, amino y carboxilo, responsables de la formación de tejido celular. Estas estructuras obedecen las leyes de la química y la física que determinan el metabolismo de los sistemas vivos. Los animales al poseer una elevada complejidad química y una robusta organización microscópica, constituyen en su anabolismo y catabolismo molecular, sistemas de extracción, transformación y aprovechamiento de monosacáridos, aminoácidos y ácidos grasos. Para la formación de acetil-Coenzima A y la liberación de su energía en el ciclo de Krebs. Así, la bioquímica del metabolismo celular, puede entenderse en términos de las estructuras y funciones de tres clases principales de moléculas orgánicas polisacáridos, lípidos y proteínas.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
		<ack>
			<title>AGRADECIMIENTOS</title>
			<p>Este trabajo fue apoyado por el Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT- México) y el proyecto: Perfiles metabólicos y sus implicaciones en medicina veterinaria (Universidad de Colima).</p>
		</ack>
		<ref-list>
			<title>LITERATURA CITADA</title>
			<ref id="B1">
				<mixed-citation>Ahern K. 2019a. Amino acids: 20 building blocks of life. In: Ahern K, <italic>Biochemistry and Molecular Biology: How Life Works</italic>. Virginia, United States: The Teaching Company. Pp. 29-40. ISBN: 978-1-25-983793-7.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Ahern</surname>
							<given-names>K.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2019</year>
					<chapter-title>Amino acids: 20 building blocks of life</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Ahern</surname>
							<given-names>K</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Biochemistry and Molecular Biology: How Life Works</source>
					<publisher-loc>Virginia, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>The Teaching Company</publisher-name>
					<fpage>29</fpage>
					<lpage>40</lpage>
					<isbn>978-1-25-983793-7</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B2">
				<mixed-citation>Ahern K. 2019b. Breaking down sugars and fatty acids. In: Ahern K, <italic>Biochemistry and Molecular Biology: How Life Works</italic>. Virginia, United States: The Teaching Company. Pp.120-126. ISBN: 978-1-25-983793-7.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Ahern</surname>
							<given-names>K.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2019</year>
					<chapter-title>Breaking down sugars and fatty acids</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Ahern</surname>
							<given-names>K</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Biochemistry and Molecular Biology: How Life Works</source>
					<publisher-loc>Virginia, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>The Teaching Company</publisher-name>
					<fpage>120</fpage>
					<lpage>126</lpage>
					<isbn>978-1-25-983793-7</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B3">
				<mixed-citation>Ahern K. 2019c. Enzyme regulation in cells. In: Ahern K, <italic>Biochemistry and Molecular Biology: How Life Works</italic>. Virginia, United States: The Teaching Company. Pp. 84-92. ISBN: 978-1-25-983793-7.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Ahern</surname>
							<given-names>K</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2019</year>
					<chapter-title>Enzyme regulation in cells</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Ahern</surname>
							<given-names>K</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Biochemistry and Molecular Biology: How Life Works</source>
					<publisher-loc>Virginia, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>The Teaching Company</publisher-name>
					<fpage>84</fpage>
					<lpage>92</lpage>
					<isbn>978-1-25-983793-7</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B4">
				<mixed-citation>Ahern K. 2019d. How animals make carbs and fats. In: Ahern K, <italic>Biochemistry and Molecular Biology: How Life Works</italic>. Virginia, United States: The Teaching Company. Pp.158. ISBN: 978-1-25-983793-7.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Ahern</surname>
							<given-names>K.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2019</year>
					<chapter-title>How animals make carbs and fats</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Ahern</surname>
							<given-names>K</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Biochemistry and Molecular Biology: How Life Works</source>
					<publisher-loc>Virginia, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>The Teaching Company</publisher-name>
					<fpage>158</fpage>
					<lpage>158</lpage>
					<isbn>978-1-25-983793-7</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B5">
				<mixed-citation>Ameer F, Munir R, Zaidi N. 2018. Lipid metabolism. <italic>Reference Module in Biomedical Sciences</italic>. 1(1):1-4. ISSN: 9780128012383. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-801238-3.64998-X</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Ameer</surname>
							<given-names>F</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Munir</surname>
							<given-names>R</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Zaidi</surname>
							<given-names>N.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2018</year>
					<article-title>Lipid metabolism</article-title>
					<source>Reference Module in Biomedical Sciences</source>
					<volume>1</volume>
					<issue>1</issue>
					<fpage>1</fpage>
					<lpage>4</lpage><issn>9780128012383</issn><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/B978-0-12-801238-3.64998-X</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B6">
				<mixed-citation>Angov E. 2011. Codon usage: nature's roadmap to expression and folding of proteins. <italic>Biotechnology Journal</italic>. 6(6):650-659. ISSN: 1860-7314. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/biot.201000332</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Angov</surname>
							<given-names>E.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2011</year>
					<article-title>Codon usage: nature's roadmap to expression and folding of proteins</article-title>
					<source>Biotechnology Journal</source>
					<volume>6</volume>
					<issue>6</issue>
					<fpage>650</fpage>
					<lpage>659</lpage>
					<issn>1860-7314</issn>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1002/biot.201000332</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B7">
				<mixed-citation>Appleton A, Vanbergen O, Dominiczak MH. 2013a. Metabolismo de los hidratos de carbono. En: Horton-Szar D, <italic>Lo Esencial en Metabolismo y Nutrición</italic>. Barcelona, España: Elsevier Health Sciences. Pp. 23-40. ISBN: 978-84-9022-416-8.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Appleton</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Vanbergen</surname>
							<given-names>O</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Dominiczak</surname>
							<given-names>MH.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2013</year>
					<chapter-title>Metabolismo de los hidratos de carbono</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Horton-Szar</surname>
							<given-names>D</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Lo Esencial en Metabolismo y Nutrición</source>
					<publisher-loc>Barcelona, España</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Elsevier Health Sciences</publisher-name>
					<fpage>23</fpage>
					<lpage>40</lpage>
					<isbn>978-84-9022-416-8</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B8">
				<mixed-citation>Appleton A, Vanbergen O, Dominiczak MH. 2013b. Metabolismo de las proteínas. En: Horton-Szar D, <italic>Lo Esencial en Metabolismo y Nutrición</italic>. Barcelona, España: Elsevier Health Sciences. Pp. 71-82. ISBN: 978-84-9022-416-8.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Appleton</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Vanbergen</surname>
							<given-names>O</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Dominiczak</surname>
							<given-names>MH.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2013</year>
					<chapter-title>Metabolismo de las proteínas</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Horton-Szar</surname>
							<given-names>D</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Lo Esencial en Metabolismo y Nutrición</source>
					<publisher-loc>Barcelona, España</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Elsevier Health Sciences</publisher-name>
					<fpage>71</fpage>
					<lpage>82</lpage>
					<isbn>978-84-9022-416-8</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B9">
				<mixed-citation>Appleton A, Vanbergen O, Dominiczak MH. 2013c. Metabolismo energético I: ciclo ATC. En: Horton-Szar D, <italic>Lo Esencial en Metabolismo y Nutrición</italic>. Barcelona, España: Elsevier Health Sciences. Pp. 13-17. ISBN: 978-84-9022-416-8.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Appleton</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Vanbergen</surname>
							<given-names>O</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Dominiczak</surname>
							<given-names>MH.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2013</year>
					<chapter-title>Metabolismo energético I: ciclo ATC</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Horton-Szar</surname>
							<given-names>D</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Lo Esencial en Metabolismo y Nutrición</source>
					<publisher-loc>Barcelona, España</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Elsevier Health Sciences</publisher-name>
					<fpage>13</fpage>
					<lpage>17</lpage>
					<isbn>978-84-9022-416-8</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B10">
				<mixed-citation>Appleton A, Vanbergen O, Dominiczak MH. 2013d. Metabolismo energético II: generación de ATP. En: Horton-Szar D, <italic>Lo Esencial en Metabolismo y Nutrición</italic>. Barcelona, España: Elsevier Health Sciences. Pp. 17-23. ISBN: 978-84-9022-416-8.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Appleton</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Vanbergen</surname>
							<given-names>O</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Dominiczak</surname>
							<given-names>MH.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2013</year>
					<chapter-title>Metabolismo energético II: generación de ATP</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Horton-Szar</surname>
							<given-names>D</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Lo Esencial en Metabolismo y Nutrición</source>
					<publisher-loc>Barcelona, España</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Elsevier Health Sciences</publisher-name>
					<fpage>17</fpage>
					<lpage>23</lpage>
					<isbn>978-84-9022-416-8</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B11">
				<mixed-citation>Appleton A, Vanbergen O, Dominiczak MH. 2013e. Transporte y metabolismo de los lípidos. En: Horton-Szar D, <italic>Lo Esencial en Metabolismo y Nutrición</italic>. Barcelona, España: Elsevier Health Sciences. Pp. 45-70. ISBN: 978-84-9022-416-8.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Appleton</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Vanbergen</surname>
							<given-names>O</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Dominiczak</surname>
							<given-names>MH.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2013</year>
					<chapter-title>Transporte y metabolismo de los lípidos</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Horton-Szar</surname>
							<given-names>D</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Lo Esencial en Metabolismo y Nutrición</source>
					<publisher-loc>Barcelona, España</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Elsevier Health Sciences</publisher-name>
					<fpage>45</fpage>
					<lpage>70</lpage>
					<isbn>978-84-9022-416-8</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B12">
				<mixed-citation>Bender AD, Mayes AP. 2018a. Glycolysis &amp; the oxidation of pyruvate. In: Rodwell WV, Bender AD, Botham MK, Kennelly JP , Weil AP, <italic>Harper’s Illustrated Biochemistry</italic>. New York, United States: McGraw-Hill Education / Medical. Pp.400-404. ISBN: 978-1-25-983794-4.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Bender</surname>
							<given-names>AD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Mayes</surname>
							<given-names>AP.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2018</year>
					<chapter-title>Glycolysis &amp; the oxidation of pyruvate</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Rodwell</surname>
							<given-names>WV</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bender</surname>
							<given-names>AD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Botham</surname>
							<given-names>MK</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kennelly</surname>
							<given-names>JP</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Weil</surname>
							<given-names>AP</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Harper’s Illustrated Biochemistry</source>
					<publisher-loc>New York, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>McGraw-Hill Education</publisher-name>
					<publisher-name>Medical</publisher-name>
					<fpage>400</fpage>
					<lpage>404</lpage>
					<isbn>978-1-25-983794-4</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B13">
				<mixed-citation>Bender AD, Mayes AP. 2018b. Overview of metabolism &amp; the provision of metabolic fuels. In: Rodwell WV, Bender AD, Botham MK, Kennelly JP , Weil AP, <italic>Harper’s Illustrated Biochemistry</italic>. New York, United States: McGraw-Hill Education / Medical. Pp. 336-342. ISBN: 978-1-25-983794-4.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Bender</surname>
							<given-names>AD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Mayes</surname>
							<given-names>AP.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2018</year>
					<chapter-title>Overview of metabolism &amp; the provision of metabolic fuels</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Rodwell</surname>
							<given-names>WV</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bender</surname>
							<given-names>AD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Botham</surname>
							<given-names>MK</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kennelly</surname>
							<given-names>JP</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Weil</surname>
							<given-names>AP</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Harper’s Illustrated Biochemistry</source>
					<publisher-loc>New York, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>McGraw-Hill Education</publisher-name>
					<publisher-name>Medical</publisher-name>
					<fpage>336</fpage>
					<lpage>342</lpage>
					<isbn>978-1-25-983794-4</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B14">
				<mixed-citation>Bender AD, Mayes AP. 2018c. Physiologically important carbohydrates. n: Rodwell WV, Bender AD, Botham MK, Kennelly JP , Weil AP, <italic>Harper’s Illustrated Biochemistry</italic>. United States: McGraw-Hill Education / Medical. Pp. 363-381. ISBN: 978-1-25-983794-4.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Bender</surname>
							<given-names>AD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Mayes</surname>
							<given-names>AP.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2018</year>
					<chapter-title>Physiologically important carbohydrates</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Rodwell</surname>
							<given-names>WV</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bender</surname>
							<given-names>AD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Botham</surname>
							<given-names>MK</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kennelly</surname>
							<given-names>JP</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Weil</surname>
							<given-names>AP</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Harper’s Illustrated Biochemistry</source>
					<publisher-loc>United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>McGraw-Hill Education</publisher-name>
					<publisher-name>Medical</publisher-name>
					<fpage>363</fpage>
					<lpage>381</lpage>
					<isbn>978-1-25-983794-4</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B15">
				<mixed-citation>Berk V, Zhang W, Pai RD, Cate JH. 2006. Structural basis for mRNA and tRNA positioning on the ribosome. <italic>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</italic>. 103(43):15830-15834. ISSN: 0027-8424. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0607541103</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Berk</surname>
							<given-names>V</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Zhang</surname>
							<given-names>W</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Pai</surname>
							<given-names>RD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Cate</surname>
							<given-names>JH.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2006</year>
					<article-title>Structural basis for mRNA and tRNA positioning on the ribosome</article-title>
					<source>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</source>
					<volume>103</volume>
					<issue>43</issue>
					<fpage>15830</fpage>
					<lpage>15834</lpage>
					<issn>0027-8424</issn>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1073/pnas.0607541103</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B16">
				<mixed-citation>Botham MK, Mayes AP. 2018a. Bioenergetics: the role of ATP. In: Rodwell WV, Bender AD, Botham MK, Kennelly JP , Weil AP, <italic>Harper’s Illustrated Biochemistry</italic>. United States: McGraw-Hill Education / Medical. Pp. 277-291. ISBN: 978-1-25-983793-7.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Botham</surname>
							<given-names>MK</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Mayes</surname>
							<given-names>AP.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2018</year>
					<chapter-title>Bioenergetics: the role of ATP</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Rodwell</surname>
							<given-names>WV</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bender</surname>
							<given-names>AD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Botham</surname>
							<given-names>MK</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kennelly</surname>
							<given-names>JP</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Weil</surname>
							<given-names>AP</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Harper’s Illustrated Biochemistry</source>
					<publisher-name>United States: McGraw-Hill Education</publisher-name>
					<publisher-name>Medical</publisher-name>
					<fpage>277</fpage>
					<lpage>291</lpage>
					<isbn>978-1-25-983793-7</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B17">
				<mixed-citation>Botham MK, Mayes AP. 2018b. Fatty acid oxidation: ketogenesis. In: Rodwell WV, Bender AD, Botham MK, Kennelly JP , Weil AP, <italic>Harper’s Illustrated Biochemistry</italic>. United States: McGraw-Hill Education / Medical. Pp. 512-534. ISBN: 978-1-25-983793-7.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Botham</surname>
							<given-names>MK</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Mayes</surname>
							<given-names>AP.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2018</year>
					<chapter-title>Fatty acid oxidation: ketogenesis</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Rodwell</surname>
							<given-names>WV</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bender</surname>
							<given-names>AD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Botham</surname>
							<given-names>MK</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kennelly</surname>
							<given-names>JP</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Weil</surname>
							<given-names>AP</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Harper’s Illustrated Biochemistry</source>
					<publisher-loc>United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>McGraw-Hill Education</publisher-name>
					<publisher-name>Medical</publisher-name>
					<fpage>512</fpage>
					<lpage>534</lpage>
					<isbn>978-1-25-983793-7</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B18">
				<mixed-citation>Botham MK, Mayes AP. 2018c. Lipids of physiological significance. In: Rodwell WV, Bender AD, Botham MK, Kennelly JP , Weil AP, <italic>Harper’s Illustrated Biochemistry</italic>. United States: McGraw-Hill Education / Medical. Pp. 483-511. ISBN: 978-1-25-983793-7.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Botham</surname>
							<given-names>MK</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Mayes</surname>
							<given-names>AP.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2018</year>
					<chapter-title>Lipids of physiological significance</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Rodwell</surname>
							<given-names>WV</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bender</surname>
							<given-names>AD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Botham</surname>
							<given-names>MK</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kennelly</surname>
							<given-names>JP</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Weil</surname>
							<given-names>AP</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Harper’s Illustrated Biochemistry</source>
					<publisher-loc>United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>McGraw-Hill Education</publisher-name>
					<publisher-name>Medical</publisher-name>
					<fpage>483</fpage>
					<lpage>511</lpage>
					<isbn>978-1-25-983793-7</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B19">
				<mixed-citation>Botham MK, Mayes AP. 2018d. The respiratory chain and oxidative phosphorylation. In: Rodwell WV, Bender AD, Botham MK, Kennelly JP , Weil AP, <italic>Harper’s Illustrated Biochemistry</italic>. United States: McGraw-Hill Education / Medical. Pp. 308-335. ISBN: 978-1-25-983793-7.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Botham</surname>
							<given-names>MK</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Mayes</surname>
							<given-names>AP.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2018</year>
					<chapter-title>The respiratory chain and oxidative phosphorylation</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Rodwell</surname>
							<given-names>WV</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bender</surname>
							<given-names>AD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Botham</surname>
							<given-names>MK</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kennelly</surname>
							<given-names>JP</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Weil</surname>
							<given-names>AP</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Harper’s Illustrated Biochemistry</source>
					<publisher-loc>United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>McGraw-Hill Education</publisher-name>
					<publisher-name>Medical</publisher-name>
					<fpage>308</fpage>
					<lpage>335</lpage>
					<isbn>978-1-25-983793-7</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B20">
				<mixed-citation>Boticario BC, Cascales AM. 2012. Metabolismo de los carbohidratos. En: Boticario BC , Cascales AM, <italic>Digestión y Metabolismo Energético de los Nutrientes</italic> Plasencia, España: UNED. Pp. 86. ISBN: 978-84-615-8137-5.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Boticario</surname>
							<given-names>BC</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Cascales</surname>
							<given-names>AM.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2012</year>
					<chapter-title>Metabolismo de los carbohidratos</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Boticario</surname>
							<given-names>BC</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Cascales</surname>
							<given-names>AM</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Digestión y Metabolismo Energético de los Nutrientes</source>
					<publisher-loc>Plasencia, España</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>UNED</publisher-name>
					<fpage>86</fpage>
					<lpage>86</lpage>
					<isbn>978-84-615-8137-5</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B21">
				<mixed-citation>Cárabez TA, Sánchez AJ, Riveros RH. 2018a. Metabolismo de los carbohidratos. En: Hernández MMT, <italic>Bioquímica de Laguna y Piña</italic>. Ciudad de México, México: El Manual Moderno. Pp. 591-607. ISBN: 978-607-448-708-4.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Cárabez</surname>
							<given-names>TA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Sánchez</surname>
							<given-names>AJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Riveros</surname>
							<given-names>RH.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2018</year>
					<chapter-title>Metabolismo de los carbohidratos</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Hernández</surname>
							<given-names>MMT</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Bioquímica de Laguna y Piña</source>
					<publisher-loc>Ciudad de México, México</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>El Manual Moderno</publisher-name>
					<fpage>591</fpage>
					<lpage>607</lpage>
					<isbn>978-607-448-708-4</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B22">
				<mixed-citation>Cárabez TA, Sánchez AJ, Riveros RH. 2018b. Vía colateral de oxidación de la glucosa: ciclo de las pentosas. En: Hernández MMT, <italic>Bioquímica de Laguna y Piña</italic>. Ciudad de México, México: El Manual Moderno. Pp. 636-638. ISBN: 978-607-448-708-4.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Cárabez</surname>
							<given-names>TA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Sánchez</surname>
							<given-names>AJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Riveros</surname>
							<given-names>RH.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2018</year>
					<chapter-title>Vía colateral de oxidación de la glucosa: ciclo de las pentosas.</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Hernández</surname>
						<given-names>MMT</given-names>
					</name>
					</person-group>
					
					<source>Bioquímica de Laguna y Piña</source>
					<publisher-loc>Ciudad de México, México</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>El Manual Moderno</publisher-name>
					<fpage>636</fpage>
					<lpage>638</lpage>
					<isbn>978-607-448-708-4</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B23">
				<mixed-citation>Cooper GM. 2019a. The biosynthesis of cell constituents. Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, adn nucleic acids. In: Cooper GM, <italic>The Cell: A Molecular Approach</italic>. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. Pp. 102-111. ISBN: 978-1-60535-707-2.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Cooper</surname>
							<given-names>GM.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2019</year>
					<chapter-title>The biosynthesis of cell constituents. Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, adn nucleic acids</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Cooper</surname>
							<given-names>GM</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>The Cell: A Molecular Approach</source>
					<publisher-loc>Oxford, New York</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Oxford University Press</publisher-name>
					<fpage>102</fpage>
					<lpage>111</lpage>
					<isbn>978-1-60535-707-2</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B24">
				<mixed-citation>Cooper GM. 2019b. The molecules of cells. Chemical bonds, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids y proteins. In: Cooper GM, <italic>The Cell: A Molecular Approach</italic>. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. Pp. 45-60. ISBN: 978-1-60535-707-2.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Cooper</surname>
							<given-names>GM.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2019</year>
					<chapter-title>The molecules of cells. Chemical bonds, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids y proteins</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Cooper</surname>
							<given-names>GM</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>The Cell: A Molecular Approach</source>
					<publisher-loc>Oxford, New York</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Oxford University Press</publisher-name>
					<fpage>45</fpage>
					<lpage>60</lpage>
					<isbn>978-1-60535-707-2</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B25">
				<mixed-citation>Cooper GM. 2019c. The origin and evolution of cells. In: Cooper GM, <italic>The Cell: A Molecular Approach</italic>. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. Pp. 4-18. ISBN: 978-1-60535-707-2.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Cooper</surname>
							<given-names>GM.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2019</year>
					<chapter-title>The origin and evolution of cells</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Cooper</surname>
							<given-names>GM</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>The Cell: A Molecular Approach</source>
					<publisher-loc>Oxford, New York</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Oxford University Press</publisher-name>
					<fpage>4</fpage>
					<lpage>18</lpage>
					<isbn>978-1-60535-707-2</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B26">
				<mixed-citation>Chavarría KA, Cárabez TA. 2018. Química de los carbohidratos. En: Hernández MMT, <italic>Bioquímica de Laguna y Piña</italic>. Ciudad de México, México: El Manual Moderno. Pp. 416- 431. ISBN: 978-607-448-708-4.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Chavarría</surname>
							<given-names>KA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Cárabez</surname>
							<given-names>TA.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2018</year>
					<chapter-title>Química de los carbohidratos</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Hernández</surname>
							<given-names>MMT</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Bioquímica de Laguna y Piña</source>
					<publisher-loc>Ciudad de México, México</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>El Manual Moderno</publisher-name>
					<fpage>416</fpage>
					<lpage> 431</lpage>
					<isbn>978-607-448-708-4</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B27">
				<mixed-citation>Dashty M. 2013. A quick look at biocheistry: carbohydrate metabolism. <italic>Clinical Biochemistry</italic>. 46(1):1339-1352. ISSN: 1873-2933. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2013.04.027</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Dashty</surname>
							<given-names>M.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2013</year>
					<article-title>A quick look at biocheistry: carbohydrate metabolism</article-title>
					<source>Clinical Biochemistry</source>
					<volume>46</volume>
					<issue>1</issue>
					<fpage>1339</fpage>
					<lpage>1352</lpage>
					<issn>1873-2933</issn>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2013.04.027</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B28">
				<mixed-citation>Deemer SE, Plaisance EP, Martins C. 2020. Impact of ketosis on appetite regulation-a review. <italic>Nutrition Research</italic>. 77(1):1-11. ISSN: 1879-0739. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nutres.2020.02.010</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Deemer</surname>
							<given-names>SE</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Plaisance</surname>
							<given-names>EP</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Martins</surname>
							<given-names>C.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2020</year>
					<article-title>Impact of ketosis on appetite regulation-a review</article-title>
					<source>Nutrition Research</source>
					<volume>77</volume>
					<issue>1</issue>
					<fpage>1</fpage>
					<lpage>11</lpage>
					<issn>1879-0739</issn>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.nutres.2020.02.010</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B29">
				<mixed-citation>Delbianco M, Bharate P, Varela-Aramburu S, Seeberger PH. 2016. Carbohydrates in supramolecular chemistry. <italic>Chemical Reviews</italic>. 116(4):1693-16752. ISSN: 1520-6890. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.5b00516</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Delbianco</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bharate</surname>
							<given-names>P</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Varela-Aramburu</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Seeberger</surname>
							<given-names>PH.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2016</year>
					<article-title>Carbohydrates in supramolecular chemistry</article-title>
					<source>Chemical Reviews</source>
					<volume>116</volume>
					<issue>4</issue>
					<fpage>1693</fpage>
					<lpage>16752</lpage>
					<issn>1520-6890</issn>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1021/acs.chemrev.5b00516</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B30">
				<mixed-citation>Dowhan W, Bogdanov M. 2016. Functional roles of lipids in membranes. In: Ridway ND, McLeod SR, <italic>Bichemistry of lipids, lipoproteins and membranes</italic>. Nova Scotia, Canada: Elsevier. Pp.1-40. ISBN: 0444634495.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Dowhan</surname>
							<given-names>W</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bogdanov</surname>
							<given-names>M.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2016</year>
					<chapter-title>Functional roles of lipids in membranes</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Ridway</surname>
							<given-names>ND</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>McLeod</surname>
							<given-names>SR</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Bichemistry of lipids, lipoproteins and membranes</source>
					<publisher-loc>Nova Scotia, Canada</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Elsevier</publisher-name>
					<fpage>1</fpage>
					<lpage>40</lpage>
					<isbn>0444634495</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B31">
				<mixed-citation>Dutta BS, Nandi N. 2012. Chirality and protein biosynthesis. <italic>Topics in Current Chemistry</italic>. 372(1):1-51. ISBN: 2364-8961. http://doi.org/10.1007/128_2012_369</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Dutta</surname>
							<given-names>BS</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Nandi</surname>
							<given-names>N.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2012</year>
					<article-title>Chirality and protein biosynthesis</article-title>
					<source>Topics in Current Chemistry</source>
					<volume>372</volume>
					<issue>1</issue>
					<fpage>1</fpage>
					<lpage>51</lpage>
					<isbn>2364-8961</isbn>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1007/128_2012_369</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B32">
				<mixed-citation>Engelking LR. 2015. Gluconeogenesis. In: Engelking LR, <italic>Textbook of Veterinary Physiological Chemistry</italic>. Massachusetts, United States: Academic Press. Pp. 225-230. ISBN: 978-0-12-391909-0.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Engelking</surname>
							<given-names>LR.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2015</year>
					<chapter-title>Gluconeogenesis</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Engelking</surname>
							<given-names>LR</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Textbook of Veterinary Physiological Chemistry</source>
					<publisher-loc>Massachusetts, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Academic Press</publisher-name>
					<fpage>225</fpage>
					<lpage>230</lpage><issn>978-0-12-391909-0</issn></element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B33">
				<mixed-citation>Fails DA, Magee C. 2018a. Nutrition and metabolism. In: Fails DA , Magee C, <italic>Anatomy and physiology of farm animals</italic>. Hoboken, United States: John Wiley &amp; Sons. Pp. 413- 419. ISBN: 978-111-923-971-0.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Fails</surname>
							<given-names>DA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Magee</surname>
							<given-names>C.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2018</year>
					<chapter-title>Nutrition and metabolism</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Fails</surname>
							<given-names>DA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Magee</surname>
							<given-names>C</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Anatomy and physiology of farm animals</source>
					<publisher-loc>Hoboken, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>John Wiley &amp; Sons</publisher-name>
					<fpage>413</fpage>
					<lpage> 419</lpage>
					<isbn>978-111-923-971-0</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B34">
				<mixed-citation>Fails DA, Magee C. 2018b. Transport across cell membranes. In: Fails DA , Magee C, <italic>Anatomy and physiology of farm animals</italic>. Hoboken, United States: John Wiley &amp; Sons. Pp. 36-43. ISBN: 978-111-923-971-0.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Fails</surname>
							<given-names>DA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Magee</surname>
							<given-names>C.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2018</year>
					<chapter-title>Transport across cell membranes</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Fails</surname>
							<given-names>DA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Magee</surname>
							<given-names>C</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Anatomy and physiology of farm animals</source>
					<publisher-loc>Hoboken, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>John Wiley &amp; Sons</publisher-name>
					<fpage>36</fpage>
					<lpage>43</lpage>
					<isbn>978-111-923-971-0</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B35">
				<mixed-citation>Fernández VDA, Peimbert TM. 2018. Aminoácidos y proteínas. En: Hernández MMT, <italic>Bioquímica de Laguna y Piña</italic>. Ciudad de México, México: El Manual Moderno. Pp. 217- 260. ISBN: 978-607-448-708-4.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Fernández</surname>
							<given-names>VDA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Peimbert</surname>
							<given-names>TM.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2018</year>
					<chapter-title>Aminoácidos y proteínas</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Hernández</surname>
							<given-names>MMT</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Bioquímica de Laguna y Piña</source>
					<publisher-loc>Ciudad de México, México</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>El Manual Moderno</publisher-name>
					<fpage>217</fpage>
					<lpage> 260</lpage>
					<isbn>978-607-448-708-4</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B36">
				<mixed-citation>Ferrier RD. 2017a. A introduction to metabolism and glucolysis. In: Shannon M, <italic>Biochemistry</italic>. Philadelphia, United States: Wolters Kluwer. Pp. 298-326. ISBN: 978-149- 634-449-6.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Ferrier</surname>
							<given-names>RD.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2017</year>
					<chapter-title>A introduction to metabolism and glucolysis</chapter-title>
					<source>Shannon M, <italic>Biochemistry</italic></source>
					<publisher-loc>Philadelphia, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Wolters Kluwer</publisher-name>
					<fpage>298</fpage>
					<lpage>326</lpage>
					<isbn>978-149- 634-449-6</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B37">
				<mixed-citation>Ferrier RD. 2017b. Glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. In: Shannon M, <italic>Biochemistry</italic>. Philadelphia, United States: Wolters Kluwer. Pp. 449-462. ISBN: 1978-149-634-449-6.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Ferrier</surname>
							<given-names>RD.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2017</year>
					<chapter-title>Glycolysis and gluconeogenesis</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Shannon</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Biochemistry</source>
					<publisher-loc>Philadelphia, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Wolters Kluwer</publisher-name>
					<fpage>449</fpage>
					<lpage>462</lpage>
					<isbn>1978-149-634-449-6</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B38">
				<mixed-citation>Ferrier RD. 2017c. Protein structure and function. Amino acids. In: Shannon M, <italic>Biochemistry</italic>. Philadelphia, United States: Wolters Kluwer. Pp. 13-42. ISBN: 978-149-634-449-6.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Ferrier</surname>
							<given-names>RD.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2017</year>
					<chapter-title>Protein structure and function. Amino acids</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Shannon</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source><italic>Biochemistry</italic>.</source>
					<publisher-loc>Philadelphia, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Wolters Kluwer</publisher-name>
					<fpage>13</fpage>
					<lpage>42</lpage>
					<isbn>978-149-634-449-6</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B39">
				<mixed-citation>Fox SI, Sierra GP, Bari SO. 2017. Respiración y metabolismo celulares. En: Fox SI, <italic>Fisiología Humana</italic> New York, United States: McGraw-Hill Education / Medical. Pp. 833. ISBN: 978-607-151-413-4.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Fox</surname>
							<given-names>SI</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Sierra</surname>
							<given-names>GP</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bari</surname>
							<given-names>SO.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2017</year>
					<chapter-title>Respiración y metabolismo celulares</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Fox</surname>
							<given-names>SI</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Fisiología Humana</source>
					<publisher-loc>New York, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>McGraw-Hill Education</publisher-name>
					<publisher-name>Medical</publisher-name>
					<fpage>833</fpage>
					<lpage>833</lpage>
					<isbn>978-607-151-413-4</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B40">
				<mixed-citation>Friedman JR, Nunnari J. 2014. Mitochondrial form and function. <italic>Nature</italic>. 505(7483):335- 343. ISSN: 1476-4687. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12985</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Friedman</surname>
							<given-names>JR</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Nunnari</surname>
							<given-names>J.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2014</year>
					<article-title>Mitochondrial form and function</article-title>
					<source>Nature</source>
					<volume>505</volume>
					<issue>7483</issue>
					<fpage>335</fpage>
					<lpage> 343</lpage>
					<issn>1476-4687</issn>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1038/nature12985</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B41">
				<mixed-citation>Gadupudi GS, Klingelhutz AJ, Robertson LW. 2016. Diminished Phosphorylation of CREB is a key event in the dysregulation of gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis in PCB126 hepatotoxicity. <italic>Chemical Research in Toxicology</italic>. 29(1):1504-1509. ISSN: 0893- 228X. http://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrestox.6b00172</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Gadupudi</surname>
							<given-names>GS</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Klingelhutz</surname>
							<given-names>AJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Robertson</surname>
							<given-names>LW.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2016</year>
					<article-title>Diminished Phosphorylation of CREB is a key event in the dysregulation of gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis in PCB126 hepatotoxicity</article-title>
					<source>Chemical Research in Toxicology</source>
					<volume>29</volume>
					<issue>1</issue>
					<fpage>1504</fpage>
					<lpage>1509</lpage><issn>0893-228X</issn><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1021/acs.chemrestox.6b00172</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B42">
				<mixed-citation>García CAC, Prado ROF, H. PD. 2020. Fisiología del período de transición, posparto y retorno al estro en vacas lecheras: desafíos para la producción sustentable. En: Gutiérrez NNS, Gutiérrez VMC , Ramírez GMJ, <italic>Handbook T-II Sustentabilidad, turismo y educación</italic>. México, Ciudad de México: ECORFAN-México, S.C. Pp. 63-86. ISBN: 978-607-8695-29-4.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>García</surname>
							<given-names>CAC</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Prado</surname>
							<given-names>ROF</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>H.</surname>
							<given-names>PD</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2020</year>
					<chapter-title>Fisiología del período de transición, posparto y retorno al estro en vacas lecheras: desafíos para la producción sustentable</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Gutiérrez</surname>
							<given-names>NNS</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Gutiérrez</surname>
							<given-names>VMC</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ramírez</surname>
							<given-names>GMJ</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Handbook T-II Sustentabilidad, turismo y educación</source>
					<publisher-loc>México, Ciudad de México</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>ECORFAN-México, S.C</publisher-name>
					<fpage>63</fpage>
					<lpage>86</lpage>
					<isbn>978-607-8695-29-4</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B43">
				<mixed-citation>Gundu HRR. 2020. Cardiometabolic diseases: Biochemistry, Pathophysiology and medical innovations. <italic>Biochemistry and Modern Applications</italic>. 3(1):1-5. ISSN: 2638-7735. http://doi.org/10.33805/2638-7735.126</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Gundu</surname>
							<given-names>HRR.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2020</year>
					<article-title>Cardiometabolic diseases: Biochemistry, Pathophysiology and medical innovations</article-title>
					<source>Biochemistry and Modern Applications</source>
					<volume>3</volume>
					<issue>1</issue>
					<fpage>1</fpage>
					<lpage>5</lpage>
					<issn>2638-7735</issn>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.33805/2638-7735.126</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B44">
				<mixed-citation>Guoyao W. 2017a. Chemistry of lipids. In: Guoyao W, <italic>Principles of Animal Nutrition</italic>. New York, United States: CRC Press. Pp. 109-142. ISBN: 978-1-4987-2160-8.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Guoyao</surname>
							<given-names>W.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2017</year>
					<chapter-title>Chemistry of lipids</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Guoyao</surname>
							<given-names>W</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Principles of Animal Nutrition</source>
					<publisher-loc>New York, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>CRC Press</publisher-name>
					<fpage>109</fpage>
					<lpage>142</lpage>
					<isbn>978-1-4987-2160-8</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B45">
				<mixed-citation>Guoyao W. 2017b. Chemistry of protein and amino acids. In: Guoyao W, <italic>Principles of Animal Nutrition</italic>. New York, United States: CRC Press. Pp. 149-188. ISBN: 978-1-4987-2160-8.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Guoyao</surname>
							<given-names>W.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2017</year>
					<chapter-title>Chemistry of protein and amino acids</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Guoyao</surname>
							<given-names>W</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Principles of Animal Nutrition</source>
					<publisher-loc>New York, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>CRC Press</publisher-name>
					<fpage>149</fpage>
					<lpage>188</lpage>
					<isbn>978-1-4987-2160-8</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B46">
				<mixed-citation>Guoyao W. 2017c. Introduction to metabolism. In: Guoyao W, <italic>Principles of Animal Nutrition</italic>. New York, United States: CRC Press. Pp. 67-69. ISBN: 978-1-4987-2160-8.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Guoyao</surname>
							<given-names>W.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2017</year>
					<chapter-title>Introduction to metabolism</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Guoyao</surname>
							<given-names>W</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Principles of Animal Nutrition</source>
					<publisher-loc>New York, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>CRC Press</publisher-name>
					<fpage>67</fpage>
					<lpage>69</lpage>
					<isbn>978-1-4987-2160-8</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B47">
				<mixed-citation>Guoyao W. 2017d. Nutrition and metabolism of lipids. In: Guoyao W, <italic>Principles of Animal Nutrition</italic>. New York, United States: CRC Press. Pp. 271-338. ISBN: 978-1-4987-2160-8.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Guoyao</surname>
							<given-names>W.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2017</year>
					<chapter-title>Nutrition and metabolism of lipids</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Guoyao</surname>
							<given-names>W</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Principles of Animal Nutrition</source>
					<publisher-loc>New York, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>CRC Press</publisher-name>
					<fpage>271</fpage>
					<lpage>338</lpage>
					<isbn>978-1-4987-2160-8</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B48">
				<mixed-citation>Guoyao W. 2017e. Nutrition and metabolism of protein and amino acids. In: Guoyao W, <italic>Principles of Animal Nutrition</italic>. New York, United States: CRC Press. Pp. 349-411. ISBN: 978-1-4987-2160-8.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Guoyao</surname>
							<given-names>W.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2017</year>
					<chapter-title>Nutrition and metabolism of protein and amino acids</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Guoyao</surname>
							<given-names>W</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Principles of Animal Nutrition</source>
					<publisher-loc>New York, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>CRC Press</publisher-name>
					<fpage>349</fpage>
					<lpage>411</lpage>
					<isbn>978-1-4987-2160-8</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B49">
				<mixed-citation>Guoyao W. 2017f. Pathway of glycolysis. In: Guoyao W, <italic>Principles of Animal Nutrition</italic>. New York, United States: CRC Press. Pp. 219. ISBN: 978-1-4987-2160-8.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Guoyao</surname>
							<given-names>W.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2017</year>
					<chapter-title>Pathway of glycolysis</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Guoyao</surname>
							<given-names>W</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Principles of Animal Nutrition</source>
					<publisher-loc>New York, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>CRC Press</publisher-name>
					<fpage>219</fpage>
					<lpage>219</lpage>
					<isbn>978-1-4987-2160-8</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B50">
				<mixed-citation>Ingolia NT. 2014. Ribosome profiling: new views of translation, from single codons to genome scale. <italic>Nature Reviews Genetics</italic>. 15(3):205-213. ISSN: 1471-0064. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrg3645</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Ingolia</surname>
							<given-names>NT</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2014</year>
					<article-title>Ribosome profiling: new views of translation, from single codons to genome scale</article-title>
					<source>Nature Reviews Genetics</source>
					<volume>15</volume>
					<issue>3</issue>
					<fpage>205</fpage>
					<lpage>213</lpage>
					<issn>1471-0064</issn>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1038/nrg3645</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B51">
				<mixed-citation>Jameson LJ. 2017. Electrolitos y equilibrio ácido-base. En: Kasper LD, Fauci SA, Hauser LS, Longo LD, Jameson LJ , Loscalzo J, <italic>Harrison. Manual de medicina</italic>. Ciudad de México, México: McGraw-Hill. Pp.1-23. ISBN: 978-607-15-1409-7.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Jameson</surname>
							<given-names>LJ.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2017</year>
					<chapter-title>Electrolitos y equilibrio ácido-base</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Kasper</surname>
							<given-names>LD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Fauci</surname>
							<given-names>SA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Hauser</surname>
							<given-names>LS</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Longo</surname>
							<given-names>LD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Jameson</surname>
							<given-names>LJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Loscalzo</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Harrison. Manual de medicina</source>
					<publisher-loc>Ciudad de México, México</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>McGraw-Hill</publisher-name>
					<fpage>1</fpage>
					<lpage>23</lpage>
					<isbn>978-607-15-1409-7</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B52">
				<mixed-citation>Jump DB. 2011. Fatty acid regulation of hepatic lipid metabolism. <italic>Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition &amp; Metabolic Care</italic>. 14(2):115-120. ISSN: 1473-6519. http://doi.org/10.1097/MCO.0b013e328342991c</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Jump</surname>
							<given-names>DB.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2011</year>
					<article-title>Fatty acid regulation of hepatic lipid metabolism</article-title>
					<source>Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition &amp; Metabolic Care</source>
					<volume>14</volume>
					<issue>2</issue>
					<fpage>115</fpage>
					<lpage>120</lpage>
					<issn>1473-6519</issn>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1097/MCO.0b013e328342991c</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B53">
				<mixed-citation>Kenneth M, Casey W. 2017. The humoral immune response. In: Toledo M, <italic>Janeway’s Immunobiology</italic>. New York, United States: Garland Science. Pp. 399-445. ISBN: 978-081-534-505-3.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Kenneth</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Casey</surname>
							<given-names>W.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2017</year>
					<chapter-title>The humoral immune response</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Toledo</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Janeway’s Immunobiology</source>
					<publisher-loc>New York, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Garland Science</publisher-name>
					<fpage>399</fpage>
					<lpage>445</lpage>
					<isbn>978-081-534-505-3</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B54">
				<mixed-citation>Kumar S, Chakravarty S. 2018. Amylases. In: Simões NC , Kumar V, <italic>Enzymes in Human and Animal Nutrition: Principles and Perspectives</italic>. New York, United States: Academic Press. Pp. 163-175. ISBN: 978-012-809-426-6.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Kumar</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Chakravarty</surname>
							<given-names>S.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2018</year>
					<chapter-title>Amylases</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Simões</surname>
							<given-names>NC</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kumar</surname>
							<given-names>V</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Enzymes in Human and Animal Nutrition: Principles and Perspectives</source>
					<publisher-loc>New York, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Academic Press</publisher-name>
					<fpage>163</fpage>
					<lpage>175</lpage>
					<isbn>978-012-809-426-6</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B55">
				<mixed-citation>Lee MH, Malloy CR, Corbin IR, Li J, Jin ES. 2019. Assessing the pentose phosphate pathway using [2, 3‐13C2] glucose. <italic>NMR in Biomedicine</italic>. 1(1):1-10. ISSN: 1099-1492. https://doi.org/10.1002/nbm.4096</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Lee</surname>
							<given-names>MH</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Malloy</surname>
							<given-names>CR</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Corbin</surname>
							<given-names>IR</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Li</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Jin</surname>
							<given-names>ES.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2019</year>
					<article-title>Assessing the pentose phosphate pathway using [2, 3‐13C2] glucose</article-title>
					<source>NMR in Biomedicine</source>
					<volume>1</volume>
					<issue>1</issue>
					<fpage>1</fpage>
					<lpage>10</lpage>
					<issn>1099-1492</issn>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1002/nbm.4096</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B56">
				<mixed-citation>Litwack DG. 2018a. Glycogen and glycogenolysis. In: Litwack DG, <italic>Human Biochemistry</italic>. California, United States: Academic press. Pp. 183-198. ISBN: 978-0-12-383864-3.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Litwack</surname>
							<given-names>DG.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2018</year>
					<chapter-title>Glycogen and glycogenolysis</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Litwack</surname>
							<given-names>DG</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Human Biochemistry</source>
					<publisher-loc>California, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Academic press</publisher-name>
					<fpage>183</fpage>
					<lpage>198</lpage>
					<isbn>978-0-12-383864-3</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B57">
				<mixed-citation>Litwack DG. 2018b. Proteins biosynthesis. In: Litwack DG, <italic>Human Biochemistry</italic>. California, United States: Academic press. Pp. 319-336. ISBN: 978-0-12-383864-3.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Litwack</surname>
							<given-names>DG.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2018</year>
					<chapter-title>Proteins biosynthesis</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Litwack</surname>
							<given-names>DG</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Human Biochemistry</source>
					<publisher-loc>California, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Academic press</publisher-name>
					<fpage>319</fpage>
					<lpage>336</lpage>
					<isbn>978-0-12-383864-3</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B58">
				<mixed-citation>Liu X, Bushnell DA, Kornberg RD. 2013. RNA polymerase II transcription: structure and mechanism. <italic>Biochimica et Biophysica Acta</italic>. 1829(1):2-8. ISSN: 1874-9399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbagrm.2012.09.003</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Liu</surname>
							<given-names>X</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bushnell</surname>
							<given-names>DA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kornberg</surname>
							<given-names>RD.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2013</year>
					<article-title>RNA polymerase II transcription: structure and mechanism</article-title>
					<source>Biochimica et Biophysica Acta</source>
					<volume>1829</volume>
					<issue>1</issue>
					<fpage>2</fpage>
					<lpage>8</lpage>
					<issn>1874-9399</issn>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.bbagrm.2012.09.003</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B59">
				<mixed-citation>Longo N, Frigeni M, Pasquali M. 2016. Carnitine transport and fatty acid oxidation. <italic>Biochimica et Biophysica Acta</italic>. 1863(10):2422-2435. ISSN: 1874-9399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbamcr.2016.01.023</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Longo</surname>
							<given-names>N</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Frigeni</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Pasquali</surname>
							<given-names>M.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2016</year>
					<article-title>Carnitine transport and fatty acid oxidation</article-title>
					<source>Biochimica et Biophysica Acta</source>
					<volume>1863</volume>
					<issue>10</issue>
					<fpage>2422</fpage>
					<lpage>2435</lpage>
					<issn>1874-9399</issn>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.bbamcr.2016.01.023</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B60">
				<mixed-citation>Madigan TM, Bender SK, Buckley HD, Sattley WM, Stahl AD. 2019a. Biosyntheses. Sugars and polysaccharides. Amino acids and nucleotides. Fatty acids and lipids. En: Madigan TM, <italic>Brock Biology of Microorganisms</italic>. New York, United States: Pearson. Pp. 130-137. ISBN: 978-1-292-23510-3.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Madigan</surname>
							<given-names>TM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bender</surname>
							<given-names>SK</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Buckley</surname>
							<given-names>HD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Sattley</surname>
							<given-names>WM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Stahl</surname>
							<given-names>AD.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2019</year>
					<chapter-title>Biosyntheses. Sugars and polysaccharides. Amino acids and nucleotides. Fatty acids and lipids</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Madigan</surname>
							<given-names>TM</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Brock Biology of Microorganisms</source>
					<publisher-loc>New York, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Pearson</publisher-name>
					<fpage>130</fpage>
					<lpage>137</lpage>
					<isbn>978-1-292-23510-3</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B61">
				<mixed-citation>Madigan TM, Bender SK, Buckley HD, Sattley WM, Stahl AD. 2019b. Protein synthesis: translation. In: Madigan TM, <italic>Brock Biology of Microorganisms</italic>. New York, United States: Pearson. Pp. 156-170. ISBN: 978-1-292-23510-3.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Madigan</surname>
							<given-names>TM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bender</surname>
							<given-names>SK</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Buckley</surname>
							<given-names>HD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Sattley</surname>
							<given-names>WM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Stahl</surname>
							<given-names>AD.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2019</year>
					<chapter-title>Protein synthesis: translation</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Madigan</surname>
							<given-names>TM</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Brock Biology of Microorganisms</source>
					<publisher-loc>New York, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Pearson</publisher-name>
					<fpage>156</fpage>
					<lpage>170</lpage>
					<isbn>978-1-292-23510-3</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B62">
				<mixed-citation>Madigan TM, Bender SK, Buckley HD, Sattley WM, Stahl AD. 2019c. Respiratory processes defined by electron donor. Hydrogen (H2) oxidation. In: Madigan TM, <italic>Brock Biology of Microorganisms</italic>. New York, United States: Pearson. Pp. 446-449. ISBN: 978-1-292-23510-3.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Madigan</surname>
							<given-names>TM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bender</surname>
							<given-names>SK</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Buckley</surname>
							<given-names>HD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Sattley</surname>
							<given-names>WM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Stahl</surname>
							<given-names>AD.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2019</year>
					<chapter-title>Respiratory processes defined by electron donor. Hydrogen (H2) oxidation</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Madigan</surname>
							<given-names>TM</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Brock Biology of Microorganisms</source>
					<publisher-loc>New York, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Pearson</publisher-name>
					<fpage>446</fpage>
					<lpage>449</lpage>
					<isbn>: 978-1-292-23510-3</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B63">
				<mixed-citation>Madigan TM, Bender SK, Buckley HD, Sattley WM, Stahl AD. 2019d. RNA synthesis: transcription In: Madigan TM, <italic>Brock Biology of Microorganisms</italic>. New York, United States: Pearson. Pp. 151-155. ISBN: 978-1-292-23510-3.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Madigan</surname>
							<given-names>TM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bender</surname>
							<given-names>SK</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Buckley</surname>
							<given-names>HD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Sattley</surname>
							<given-names>WM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Stahl</surname>
							<given-names>AD.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2019</year>
					<chapter-title>RNA synthesis: transcription </chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Madigan</surname>
							<given-names>TM</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Brock Biology of Microorganisms</source>
					<publisher-loc>New York, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Pearson</publisher-name>
					<fpage>151</fpage>
					<lpage>155</lpage>
					<isbn>978-1-292-23510-3</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B64">
				<mixed-citation>Marini JC, van Amburgh ME. 2003. Nitrogen metabolism and recycling in Holstein heifers. <italic>Journal of Animal Science</italic>. 81(2):545-552. ISSN: 0021-8812. https://doi.org/10.2527/2003.812545x</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Marini</surname>
							<given-names>JC</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>van Amburgh</surname>
							<given-names>ME.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2003</year>
					<article-title>Nitrogen metabolism and recycling in Holstein heifers</article-title>
					<source>Journal of Animal Science</source>
					<volume>81</volume>
					<issue>2</issue>
					<fpage>545</fpage>
					<lpage>552</lpage>
					<issn>0021-8812</issn>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.2527/2003.812545x</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B65">
				<mixed-citation>Mas OJ. 2018a. Metabolismo de los lípidos. En: Hernández MMT, <italic>Bioquímica de Laguna y Piña</italic>. Ciudad de México, México: El Manual Moderno. Pp. 660-785. ISBN: 978-607-448-708-4.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Mas</surname>
							<given-names>OJ.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2018</year>
					<chapter-title>Metabolismo de los lípidos</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Hernández</surname>
							<given-names>MMT</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Bioquímica de Laguna y Piña</source>
					<publisher-loc>Ciudad de México, México</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>El Manual Moderno</publisher-name>
					<fpage>660</fpage>
					<lpage>785</lpage>
					<isbn>978-607-448-708-4</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B66">
				<mixed-citation>Mas OJ. 2018b. Química de los lípidos. En: Hernández MMT, <italic>Bioquímica de Laguna y Piña</italic>. Ciudad de México, México: El Manual Moderno. Pp. 456-483. ISBN: 978-607-448-708-4.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Mas</surname>
							<given-names>OJ.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2018</year>
					<chapter-title>Química de los lípidos</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Hernández</surname>
							<given-names>MMT</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Bioquímica de Laguna y Piña</source>
					<publisher-loc>Ciudad de México, México</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>El Manual Moderno</publisher-name>
					<fpage>456</fpage>
					<lpage>483</lpage>
					<isbn>978-607-448-708-4</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B67">
				<mixed-citation>McKee T, Mckee JR. 2014a. Carbohidratos. En: De León-Fraga J, <italic>Bioquímica. Las bases moleculares de la vida</italic> Ciudad de México, México: McGraw-Hil. Pp. 208-212. ISBN: 978-0-19-992046-4.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>McKee</surname>
							<given-names>T</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Mckee</surname>
							<given-names>JR.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2014</year>
					<chapter-title>Carbohidratos</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>De León-Fraga</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Bioquímica. Las bases moleculares de la vida</source>
					<publisher-loc>Ciudad de México, México</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>McGraw-Hil</publisher-name>
					<fpage>208</fpage>
					<lpage>212</lpage>
					<isbn>978-0-19-992046-4</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B68">
				<mixed-citation>McKee T, Mckee JR. 2014b. Metabolismo aerobio II: transporte de electrones y fosforilación oxidativa. En: De León-Fraga J, <italic>Bioquímica. Las bases moleculares de la vida</italic> Ciudad de México, México: McGraw-Hil. Pp. 308. ISBN: 978-0-19-992046-4.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>McKee</surname>
							<given-names>T</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Mckee</surname>
							<given-names>JR.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2014</year>
					<chapter-title>Metabolismo aerobio II: transporte de electrones y fosforilación oxidativa</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>De León-Fraga</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Bioquímica. Las bases moleculares de la vida</source>
					<publisher-loc>Ciudad de México, México</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>McGraw-Hil</publisher-name>
					<fpage>308</fpage>
					<lpage>308</lpage>
					<isbn>978-0-19-992046-4</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B69">
				<mixed-citation>McKee T, Mckee JR. 2014c. Metabolismo de los carbohidratos. En: De León-Fraga J, <italic>Bioquímica. Las bases moleculares de la vida</italic> Ciudad de México, México: McGraw-Hil. Pp. 240-250. ISBN: 978-0-19-992046-4.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>McKee</surname>
							<given-names>T</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Mckee</surname>
							<given-names>JR.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2014</year>
					<chapter-title>Metabolismo de los carbohidratos</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>De León-Fraga</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Bioquímica. Las bases moleculares de la vida</source>
					<publisher-loc>Ciudad de México, México</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>McGraw-Hil</publisher-name>
					<fpage>240</fpage>
					<lpage>250</lpage>
					<isbn>978-0-19-992046-4</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B70">
				<mixed-citation>Melo V, Cuamatzi OT. 2019. Glucólisis: ruta central del catabolismo de la glucosa. En: Melo V, <italic>Bioquímica de los procesos metabólicos</italic>. Barcelona, España: Reverté. Pp. 169- 177. ISBN: 978-84-291-9551-4.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Melo</surname>
							<given-names>V</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Cuamatzi</surname>
							<given-names>OT.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2019</year>
					<chapter-title>Glucólisis: ruta central del catabolismo de la glucosa</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>: Melo</surname>
							<given-names>V</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Bioquímica de los procesos metabólicos</source>
					<publisher-loc>Barcelona, España</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Reverté</publisher-name>
					<fpage>169</fpage>
					<lpage> 177</lpage>
					<isbn>978-84-291-9551-4</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B71">
				<mixed-citation>Menzies KJ, Zhang H, Katsyuba E, Auwerx J. 2016. Protein acetylation in metabolism - metabolites and cofactors. <italic>Nature Reviews Endocrinology</italic>. 12(1):43-60. ISSN: 1759- 5037. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrendo.2015.181</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Menzies</surname>
							<given-names>KJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Zhang</surname>
							<given-names>H</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Katsyuba</surname>
							<given-names>E</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Auwerx</surname>
							<given-names>J.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2016</year>
					<article-title>Protein acetylation in metabolism - metabolites and cofactors</article-title>
					<source>Nature Reviews Endocrinology</source>
					<volume>12</volume>
					<issue>1</issue>
					<fpage>43</fpage>
					<lpage>60</lpage><issn>1759-5037</issn><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1038/nrendo.2015.181</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B72">
				<mixed-citation>Merritt JL, Norris M, Kanungo S. 2018. Fatty acid oxidation disorders. <italic>Annals of Translational Medicine</italic>. 6(24):473-475. ISSN: 2305-5839.http://doi.org/10.21037/atm.2018.10.57</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Merritt</surname>
							<given-names>JL</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Norris</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kanungo</surname>
							<given-names>S.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2018</year>
					<article-title>Fatty acid oxidation disorders</article-title>
					<source>Annals of Translational Medicine</source>
					<volume>6</volume>
					<issue>24</issue>
					<fpage>473</fpage>
					<lpage>475</lpage>
					<issn>2305-5839</issn>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.21037/atm.2018.10.57</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B73">
				<mixed-citation>Merritt JL, MacLeod E, Jurecka A, Hainline B. 2020. Clinical manifestations and management of fatty acid oxidation disorders. <italic>Reviews in Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders</italic>. 21(4):479-493. ISSN:1573-2606. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11154-020-09568-3</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Merritt</surname>
							<given-names>JL</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>MacLeod</surname>
							<given-names>E</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Jurecka</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Hainline</surname>
							<given-names>B.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2020</year>
					<article-title>Clinical manifestations and management of fatty acid oxidation disorders</article-title>
					<source>Reviews in Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders</source>
					<volume>21</volume>
					<issue>4</issue>
					<fpage>479</fpage>
					<lpage>493</lpage>
					<issn>1573-2606</issn>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1007/s11154-020-09568-3</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B74">
				<mixed-citation>Milani P, França D, Balieiro AG, Faez R. 2017. Polymers and its applications in agriculture. <italic>Polímeros</italic>. 27(3):256-266. ISSN: 1988-4206. https://doi.org/10.1590/0104-1428.09316</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Milani</surname>
							<given-names>P</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>França</surname>
							<given-names>D</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Balieiro</surname>
							<given-names>AG</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Faez</surname>
							<given-names>R.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2017</year>
					<article-title>Polymers and its applications in agriculture</article-title>
					<source>Polímeros</source>
					<volume>27</volume>
					<issue>3</issue>
					<fpage>256</fpage>
					<lpage>266</lpage>
					<issn>1988-4206</issn>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/0104-1428.09316</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B75">
				<mixed-citation>Nelson LD, Cox MM, Hoskins AA. 2021a. Amino acids, peptides, and proteins. In: Nelson LD , Cox MM, Hoskins AA, <italic>Lehninger. Principles of Biochemistry</italic>. New York, United States: Macmillan Learning. Pp. 357-392. ISBN: 978-1-319-32234-2.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Nelson</surname>
							<given-names>LD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Cox</surname>
							<given-names>MM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Hoskins</surname>
							<given-names>AA.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2021</year>
					<chapter-title>Amino acids, peptides, and proteins</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Nelson</surname>
							<given-names>LD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Cox</surname>
							<given-names>MM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Hoskins</surname>
							<given-names>AA</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Lehninger. Principles of Biochemistry</source>
					<publisher-loc>New York, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Macmillan Learning</publisher-name>
					<fpage>357</fpage>
					<lpage>392</lpage>
					<isbn>978-1-319-32234-2</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B76">
				<mixed-citation>Nelson LD, Cox MM, Hoskins AA. 2021b. Glycolysis, gluconeogenesis and the pentose phosphate patway. In: Nelson LD , Cox MM, Hoskins AA, <italic>Lehninger. Principles of Biochemistry</italic>. New York, United States: Macmillan Learning. Pp. 1865-2000. ISBN: 978-1-319-32234-2.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Nelson</surname>
							<given-names>LD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Cox</surname>
							<given-names>MM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Hoskins</surname>
							<given-names>AA.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2021</year>
					<chapter-title>Glycolysis, gluconeogenesis and the pentose phosphate patway</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Nelson</surname>
							<given-names>LD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Cox</surname>
							<given-names>MM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Hoskins</surname>
							<given-names>AA</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Lehninger. Principles of Biochemistry</source>
					<publisher-loc>New York, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Macmillan Learning</publisher-name>
					<fpage>1865</fpage>
					<lpage>2000</lpage>
					<isbn>978-1-319-32234-2</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B77">
				<mixed-citation>Nelson LD, Cox MM, Hoskins AA. 2021c. Storage lipids. In: Nelson LD , Cox MM, Hoskins AA, <italic>Lehninger. Principles of Biochemistry</italic>. New York, United States: Macmillan Learning. Pp. 1286-1292. ISBN: 978-1-319-32234-2.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Nelson</surname>
							<given-names>LD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Cox</surname>
							<given-names>MM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Hoskins</surname>
							<given-names>AA.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2021</year>
					<chapter-title>Storage lipids</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Nelson</surname>
							<given-names>LD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Cox</surname>
							<given-names>MM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Hoskins</surname>
							<given-names>AA</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Lehninger. Principles of Biochemistry</source>
					<publisher-loc>New York, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Macmillan Learning</publisher-name>
					<fpage>1286</fpage>
					<lpage>1292</lpage>
					<isbn>978-1-319-32234-2</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B78">
				<mixed-citation>Nelson LD, Cox MM, Hoskins AA. 2021d. RNA metabolism In: Nelson LD , Cox MM, Hoskins AA, <italic>Lehninger. Principles of Biochemistry</italic>. New York, United States: Macmillan Learning. Pp. 3341-3380. ISBN: 978-1-319-32234-2.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Nelson</surname>
							<given-names>LD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Cox</surname>
							<given-names>MM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Hoskins</surname>
							<given-names>AA.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2021</year>
					<chapter-title>RNA metabolism </chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Nelson</surname>
							<given-names>LD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Cox</surname>
							<given-names>MM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Hoskins</surname>
							<given-names>AA</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Lehninger. Principles of Biochemistry</source>
					<publisher-loc>New York, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Macmillan Learning</publisher-name>
					<fpage>3341</fpage>
					<lpage>3380</lpage>
					<isbn>978-1-319-32234-2</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B79">
				<mixed-citation>Nelson LD, Cox MM, Hoskins AA. 2021e. ATP synthesis. In: Nelson LD , Cox MM, Hoskins AA, <italic>Lehninger. Principles of Biochemistry</italic>. New York, United States: Macmillan Learning. 2407-2446 p. ISBN: 978-1-319-32234-2.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Nelson</surname>
							<given-names>LD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Cox</surname>
							<given-names>MM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Hoskins</surname>
							<given-names>AA.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2021</year>
					<chapter-title>ATP synthesis</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Nelson</surname>
							<given-names>LD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Cox</surname>
							<given-names>MM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Hoskins</surname>
							<given-names>AA</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Lehninger. Principles of Biochemistry</source>
					<publisher-loc>New York, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Macmillan Learning</publisher-name>
					<fpage>2407</fpage>
					<lpage>2446</lpage>
					<isbn>978-1-319-32234-2</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B80">
				<mixed-citation>Noller HF. 2017. The parable of the caveman and the Ferrari: protein synthesis and the RNA world. <italic>Topics in Current Chemistry</italic>. 372(1):1-5. ISSN: 1471-2970. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2016.0187</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Noller</surname>
							<given-names>HF.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2017</year>
					<article-title>The parable of the caveman and the Ferrari: protein synthesis and the RNA world</article-title>
					<source>Topics in Current Chemistry</source>
					<volume>372</volume>
					<issue>1</issue>
					<fpage>1</fpage>
					<lpage>5</lpage>
					<issn>1471-2970</issn>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1098/rstb.2016.0187</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B81">
				<mixed-citation>Nunes-Nesi A, Araujo WL, Obata T, Fernie AR. 2013. Regulation of the mitochondrial tricarboxylic acid cycle. <italic>Current Opinion in Plant Biology</italic>. 16(3):335-343. ISSN: 1879- 0356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbi.2013.01.004</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Nunes-Nesi</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Araujo</surname>
							<given-names>WL</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Obata</surname>
							<given-names>T</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Fernie</surname>
							<given-names>AR.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2013</year>
					<article-title>Regulation of the mitochondrial tricarboxylic acid cycle</article-title>
					<source>Current Opinion in Plant Biology</source>
					<volume>16</volume>
					<issue>3</issue>
					<fpage>335</fpage>
					<lpage>343</lpage><issn>1879-0356</issn><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.pbi.2013.01.004</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B82">
				<mixed-citation>OosterVeer MH, Schoonjans K. 2014. Hepatic glucose sensing and integrative pathways in the liver. <italic>Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences</italic>. 71(8):1453-1467. ISSN: 1420- 9071. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00018-013-1505-z</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>OosterVeer</surname>
							<given-names>MH</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Schoonjans</surname>
							<given-names>K.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2014</year>
					<article-title>Hepatic glucose sensing and integrative pathways in the liver</article-title>
					<source>Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences</source>
					<volume>71</volume>
					<issue>8</issue>
					<fpage>1453</fpage>
					<lpage>1467</lpage><issn>1420-9071</issn><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1007/s00018-013-1505-z</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B83">
				<mixed-citation>Pavlinov I, Gerlach EM, Aldrich LN. 2019. Next generation diversity-oriented synthesis: a paradigm shift from chemical diversity to biological diversity. <italic>Organic and Biomolecular Chemistry</italic>. 17(7):1608-1623. ISSN: 1477-0539. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8OB02327A</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Pavlinov</surname>
							<given-names>I</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Gerlach</surname>
							<given-names>EM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Aldrich</surname>
							<given-names>LN.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2019</year>
					<article-title>Next generation diversity-oriented synthesis: a paradigm shift from chemical diversity to biological diversity</article-title>
					<source>Organic and Biomolecular Chemistry</source>
					<volume>17</volume>
					<issue>7</issue>
					<fpage>1608</fpage>
					<lpage>1623</lpage>
					<issn>1477-0539</issn>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1039/C8OB02327A</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B84">
				<mixed-citation>Piña GE, Flores HO. 2018. Metabolismo de los compuestos nitrogenados. En: Hernández MMT, <italic>Bioquímica de Laguna y Piña</italic>. Ciudad de México, México: El Manual Moderno. Pp. 714-763. ISBN: 978-607-448-708-4.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Piña</surname>
							<given-names>GE</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Flores</surname>
							<given-names>HO.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2018</year>
					<chapter-title>Metabolismo de los compuestos nitrogenados</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Hernández</surname>
							<given-names>MMT</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Bioquímica de Laguna y Piña</source>
					<publisher-loc>Ciudad de México, México</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>El Manual Moderno</publisher-name>
					<fpage>714</fpage>
					<lpage>763</lpage>
					<isbn>978-607-448-708-4</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B85">
				<mixed-citation>Pol A, Gross SP, Parton RG. 2014. Review: biogenesis of the multifunctional lipid droplet: lipids, proteins and sites. <italic>Journal of Cell Biology</italic>. 204(5):635-646. ISSN: 1540- 8140. https://doi.org/10.1083/jcb.201311051</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Pol</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Gross</surname>
							<given-names>SP</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Parton</surname>
							<given-names>RG.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2014</year>
					<article-title>Review: biogenesis of the multifunctional lipid droplet: lipids, proteins and sites</article-title>
					<source>Journal of Cell Biology</source>
					<volume>204</volume>
					<issue>5</issue>
					<fpage>635</fpage>
					<lpage>646</lpage><issn>1540-8140</issn><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1083/jcb.201311051</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B86">
				<mixed-citation>Pratt LR, Chaudhari MI, Rempe SB. 2016. Statistical analyses of hydrophobic interactions. <italic>Journal of Physical Chemistry B</italic>. 120(27):6455-6460. ISSN: 1520-5207. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcb.6b04082</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Pratt</surname>
							<given-names>LR</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Chaudhari</surname>
							<given-names>MI</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Rempe</surname>
							<given-names>SB.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2016</year>
					<article-title>Statistical analyses of hydrophobic interactions</article-title>
					<source>Journal of Physical Chemistry B</source>
					<volume>120</volume>
					<issue>27</issue>
					<fpage>6455</fpage>
					<lpage>6460</lpage>
					<issn>1520-5207</issn>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1021/acs.jpcb.6b04082</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B87">
				<mixed-citation>Preethi KA, Sekar D. 2021. Dietary microRNAs: Current status and perspective in food science. <italic>Journal of Food Biochemistry</italic>. 45(7):e13827-e13832. ISSN: 1745-4514. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfbc.13827</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Preethi</surname>
							<given-names>KA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Sekar</surname>
							<given-names>D.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2021</year>
					<article-title>Dietary microRNAs: Current status and perspective in food science</article-title>
					<source>Journal of Food Biochemistry</source>
					<volume>45</volume>
					<issue>7</issue>
					<fpage>e13827</fpage>
					<lpage>e13832</lpage>
					<issn>1745-4514</issn>
					<publisher-loc>10.1111/jfbc.13827</publisher-loc>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B88">
				<mixed-citation>Quintero FG. 2014. Gliceroneogénesis y el ciclo del triacilglicerol. En: De León-Fraga J, <italic>Bioquímica. Las bases moleculares de la vida</italic> Ciudad de México, México: McGraw-Hil. Pp. 383-384. ISBN: 978-0-19-992046-4.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Quintero</surname>
							<given-names>FG.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2014</year>
					<chapter-title>Gliceroneogénesis y el ciclo del triacilglicerol</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>De León-Fraga</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Bioquímica. Las bases moleculares de la vida</source>
					<publisher-loc>Ciudad de México, México</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>McGraw-Hil</publisher-name>
					<fpage>383</fpage>
					<lpage>384</lpage>
					<isbn>978-0-19-992046-4</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B89">
				<mixed-citation>Rodnina MV, Wintermeyer W. 2016. Protein elongation, co-translational folding and targeting. <italic>Journal of Molecular Biology</italic>. 1(1):1-51. ISSN: 0022-2836. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmb.2016.03.022</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Rodnina</surname>
							<given-names>MV</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Wintermeyer</surname>
							<given-names>W.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2016</year>
					<article-title>Protein elongation, co-translational folding and targeting</article-title>
					<source>Journal of Molecular Biology</source>
					<volume>1</volume>
					<issue>1</issue>
					<fpage>1</fpage>
					<lpage>51</lpage>
					<issn>0022-2836</issn>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jmb.2016.03.022</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B90">
				<mixed-citation>Rodwell WV. 2018a. Catabolism of proteins and amino acid nitrogen. In: Rodwell WV, Bender AD, Botham MK, Kennelly JP , Weil AP, <italic>Harper’s Illustrated Biochemistry</italic>. United States: McGraw-Hill Education / Medical. Pp. 661-686. ISBN: 978-1-25-983793-7.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Rodwell</surname>
							<given-names>WV.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2018</year>
					<chapter-title>Catabolism of proteins and amino acid nitrogen</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Rodwell</surname>
							<given-names>WV</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bender</surname>
							<given-names>AD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Botham</surname>
							<given-names>MK</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kennelly</surname>
							<given-names>JP</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Weil</surname>
							<given-names>AP</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Harper’s Illustrated Biochemistry</source>
					<publisher-loc>United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>McGraw-Hill Education</publisher-name>
					<publisher-name>Medical</publisher-name>
					<fpage>661</fpage>
					<lpage>686</lpage>
					<isbn>978-1-25-983793-7</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B91">
				<mixed-citation>Rodwell WV. 2018b. Metabolism of purine and pyrimidine nucleotides. In: Rodwell WV, Bender AD, Botham MK, Kennelly JP , Weil AP, <italic>Harper’s Illustrated Biochemistry</italic>. United States: McGraw-Hill Education / Medical. Pp. 801-826. ISBN: 978-1-25-983793-7.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Rodwell</surname>
							<given-names>WV.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2018</year>
					<chapter-title>Metabolism of purine and pyrimidine nucleotides</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Rodwell</surname>
							<given-names>WV</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bender</surname>
							<given-names>AD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Botham</surname>
							<given-names>MK</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kennelly</surname>
							<given-names>JP</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Weil</surname>
							<given-names>AP</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Harper’s Illustrated Biochemistry</source>
					<publisher-loc>United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>McGraw-Hill Education</publisher-name>
					<publisher-name>Medical</publisher-name>
					<fpage>801</fpage>
					<lpage>826</lpage>
					<isbn>978-1-25-983793-7</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B92">
				<mixed-citation>Rui L. 2014. Energy metabolism in the liver. <italic>Comprehensive Physiology</italic>. 4(1):177-197. ISSN: 20404603. https://doi.org/10.1002/cphy.c130024</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Rui</surname>
							<given-names>L.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2014</year>
					<article-title>Energy metabolism in the liver</article-title>
					<source>Comprehensive Physiology</source>
					<volume>4</volume>
					<issue>1</issue>
					<fpage>177</fpage>
					<lpage>197</lpage><issn>20404603</issn><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1002/cphy.c130024</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B93">
				<mixed-citation>Schoeler M, Caesar R. 2019. Dietary lipids, gut microbiota and lipid metabolism. <italic>Reviews in Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders</italic>. 1(1):1-12. ISSN: 13899155. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11154-019-09512-0</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Schoeler</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Caesar</surname>
							<given-names>R.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2019</year>
					<article-title>Dietary lipids, gut microbiota and lipid metabolism</article-title>
					<source>Reviews in Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders</source>
					<volume>1</volume>
					<issue>1</issue>
					<fpage>1</fpage>
					<lpage>12</lpage><issn>13899155</issn><pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1007/s11154-019-09512-0</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B94">
				<mixed-citation>Selvaraj S, Kelly DP, Margulies KB. 2020. Implications of altered ketone metabolism and therapeutic ketosis in heart failure. <italic>Circulation</italic>. 141(22):1800-1812. ISSN: 1524-4539. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.119.045033</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Selvaraj</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kelly</surname>
							<given-names>DP</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Margulies</surname>
							<given-names>KB.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2020</year>
					<article-title>Implications of altered ketone metabolism and therapeutic ketosis in heart failure</article-title>
					<source>Circulation</source>
					<volume>141</volume>
					<issue>22</issue>
					<fpage>1800</fpage>
					<lpage>1812</lpage>
					<issn>1524-4539</issn>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.119.045033</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B95">
				<mixed-citation>Smith BM. 2020a. Amino acids. En: Smith BM, <italic>Biochemistry: An Organic Chemistry Approach</italic>. New York, United States: CRC Press. Pp. 253-259. ISBN: 9780815366454.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Smith</surname>
							<given-names>BM.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2020</year>
					<chapter-title>Amino acids</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Smith</surname>
							<given-names>BM</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Biochemistry: An Organic Chemistry Approach</source>
					<publisher-loc>New York, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>CRC Press</publisher-name>
					<fpage>253</fpage>
					<lpage>259</lpage>
					<isbn>9780815366454</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B96">
				<mixed-citation>Smith BM. 2020b. The importance of water in biochemical systems. In: Smith BM, <italic>Biochemistry: An Organic Chemistry Approach</italic>. New York, United States: CRC Press. Pp. 55-80. ISBN: 9780815366454.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Smith</surname>
							<given-names>BM.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2020</year>
					<chapter-title>The importance of water in biochemical systems</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Smith</surname>
							<given-names>BM</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Biochemistry: An Organic Chemistry Approach</source>
					<publisher-loc>New York, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>CRC Press</publisher-name>
					<fpage>55</fpage>
					<lpage>80</lpage>
					<isbn>9780815366454</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B97">
				<mixed-citation>Stincone A, Prigione A, Cramer T, Wamelink MM, Campbell K, Cheung E, Olin- Sandoval V, Gruning NM, Kruger A, Tauqeer AM, Keller MA, Breitenbach M, Brindle KM, Rabinowitz JD, Ralser M. 2015. The return of metabolism: biochemistry and physiology of the pentose phosphate pathway. <italic>Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society</italic>. 90(3):927-963. ISSN: 1469-185X. https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12140</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Stincone</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Prigione</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Cramer</surname>
							<given-names>T</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Wamelink</surname>
							<given-names>MM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Campbell</surname>
							<given-names>K</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Cheung</surname>
							<given-names>E</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Olin- Sandoval</surname>
							<given-names>V</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Gruning</surname>
							<given-names>NM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kruger</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Tauqeer</surname>
							<given-names>AM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Keller</surname>
							<given-names>MA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Breitenbach</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Brindle</surname>
							<given-names>KM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Rabinowitz</surname>
							<given-names>JD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ralser</surname>
							<given-names>M.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2015</year>
					<article-title>The return of metabolism: biochemistry and physiology of the pentose phosphate pathway</article-title>
					<source>Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society</source>
					<volume>90</volume>
					<issue>3</issue>
					<fpage>927</fpage>
					<lpage>963</lpage>
					<issn>1469-185X</issn>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1111/brv.12140</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B98">
				<mixed-citation>Swiderek K, Marti S, Tunon I, Moliner V, Bertran J. 2015. Peptide bond formation mechanism catalyzed by ribosome. <italic>Journal of the American Chemical Society</italic>. 137(37):12024-12034. ISSN: 1520-5126. https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.5b05916</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Swiderek</surname>
							<given-names>K</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Marti</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Tunon</surname>
							<given-names>I</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Moliner</surname>
							<given-names>V</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bertran</surname>
							<given-names>J.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2015</year>
					<article-title>Peptide bond formation mechanism catalyzed by ribosome</article-title>
					<source>Journal of the American Chemical Society</source>
					<volume>137</volume>
					<issue>37</issue>
					<fpage>12024</fpage>
					<lpage>12034</lpage>
					<issn>1520-5126</issn>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1021/jacs.5b05916</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B99">
				<mixed-citation>Tortora JG, Derrickson B. 2018a. Metabolismo de lípidos. En: Rondinone S, <italic>Principios de Anatomía y Fisiología</italic>. Ciudad de México, México: Médica Panamericana. Pp. 968- 969. ISBN: 978-607-854-611-4.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Tortora</surname>
							<given-names>JG</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Derrickson</surname>
							<given-names>B.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2018</year>
					<chapter-title>Metabolismo de lípidos</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Rondinone</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Principios de Anatomía y Fisiología</source>
					<publisher-loc>Ciudad de México, México</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Médica Panamericana</publisher-name>
					<fpage>968</fpage>
					<lpage> 969</lpage>
					<isbn>978-607-854-611-4</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B100">
				<mixed-citation>Tortora JG, Derrickson B. 2018b. Metabolismo y nutrición. En: Rondinone S, <italic>Principios de Anatomía y Fisiología</italic>. Ciudad de México, México: Médica Panamericana. Pp. 956. ISBN: 978-607-854-611-4.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Tortora</surname>
							<given-names>JG</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Derrickson</surname>
							<given-names>B.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2018</year>
					<chapter-title>Metabolismo y nutrición</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Rondinone</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Principios de Anatomía y Fisiología</source>
					<publisher-loc>Ciudad de México, México</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Médica Panamericana</publisher-name>
					<fpage>956</fpage>
					<lpage>956</lpage>
					<isbn>978-607-854-611-4</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B101">
				<mixed-citation>Tortora JG, Funke RB, Case LC. 2019a. Organic compounds. Structure and chemistry: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids. In: Beauparlant S, <italic>Microbiology: An Introduction</italic>. New York, United States: Pearson. Pp. 33-47. ISBN:978-607-854-611-4.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Tortora</surname>
							<given-names>JG</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Funke</surname>
							<given-names>RB</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Case</surname>
							<given-names>LC.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2019</year>
					<chapter-title>Organic compounds. Structure and chemistry: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Beauparlant</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Microbiology: An Introduction</source>
					<publisher-loc>New York, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Pearson</publisher-name>
					<fpage>33</fpage>
					<lpage>47</lpage>
					<isbn>978-607-854-611-4</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B102">
				<mixed-citation>Tortora JG, Funke RB, Case LC. 2019b. The structure of atoms. How atoms form molecules: chemical bonds. In: Beauparlant S, <italic>Microbiology: An Introduction</italic>. New York, United States: Pearson. Pp. 25-30. ISBN: 978-607-854-611-4.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Tortora</surname>
							<given-names>JG</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Funke</surname>
							<given-names>RB</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Case</surname>
							<given-names>LC.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2019</year>
					<chapter-title>The structure of atoms. How atoms form molecules: chemical bonds</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Beauparlant</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Microbiology: An Introduction</source>
					<publisher-loc>New York, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Pearson</publisher-name>
					<fpage>25</fpage>
					<lpage>30</lpage>
					<isbn>978-607-854-611-4</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B103">
				<mixed-citation>Verschueren KHG, Blanchet C, Felix J, Dansercoer A, De Vos D, Bloch Y, Van Beeumen J, Svergun D, Gutsche I, Savvides SN, Verstraete K. 2019. Structure of ATP citrate lyase and the origin of citrate synthase in the Krebs cycle. <italic>Nature</italic>. 568(7753):571- 575. ISSN: 1476-4687. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1095-5</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Verschueren</surname>
							<given-names>KHG</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Blanchet</surname>
							<given-names>C</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Felix</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Dansercoer</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>De Vos</surname>
							<given-names>D</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bloch</surname>
							<given-names>Y</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Van Beeumen</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Svergun</surname>
							<given-names>D</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Gutsche</surname>
							<given-names>I</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Savvides</surname>
							<given-names>SN</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Verstraete</surname>
							<given-names>K.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2019</year>
					<article-title>Structure of ATP citrate lyase and the origin of citrate synthase in the Krebs cycle</article-title>
					<source>Nature</source>
					<volume>568</volume>
					<issue>7753</issue>
					<fpage>571</fpage>
					<lpage> 575</lpage>
					<issn>1476-4687</issn>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1038/s41586-019-1095-5</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B104">
				<mixed-citation>Voet D, Voet JG, Pratt CW. 2016. Glucose catabolism. In: Ray B, <italic>Life at the molecular level</italic> New York, United States: Wiley. Pp. 478-495. ISBN: 978-1-118-91840-1.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Voet</surname>
							<given-names>D</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Voet</surname>
							<given-names>JG</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Pratt</surname>
							<given-names>CW.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2016</year>
					<chapter-title>Glucose catabolism</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Ray</surname>
							<given-names>B</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Life at the molecular level</source>
					<publisher-loc>New York, United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Wiley</publisher-name>
					<fpage>478</fpage>
					<lpage>495</lpage>
					<isbn>978-1-118-91840-1</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B105">
				<mixed-citation>Wadhera RK, Steen DL, Khan I, Giugliano RP, Foody JM. 2016. A review of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, treatment strategies, and its impact on cardiovascular disease morbidity and mortality. <italic>Journal of Clinical Lipidology</italic>. 10(3):472-489. ISSN: 1933-2874. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacl.2015.11.010</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Wadhera</surname>
							<given-names>RK</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Steen</surname>
							<given-names>DL</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Khan</surname>
							<given-names>I</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Giugliano</surname>
							<given-names>RP</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Foody</surname>
							<given-names>JM.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2016</year>
					<article-title>A review of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, treatment strategies, and its impact on cardiovascular disease morbidity and mortality</article-title>
					<source>Journal of Clinical Lipidology</source>
					<volume>10</volume>
					<issue>3</issue>
					<fpage>472</fpage>
					<lpage>489</lpage>
					<issn>1933-2874</issn>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jacl.2015.11.010</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B106">
				<mixed-citation>Wanders RJA, Visser G, Ferdinandusse S, Vaz FM, Houtkooper RH. 2020. Mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation disorders: laboratory diagnosis, pathogenesis, and the complicated route to treatment. <italic>Journal of Lipid and Atherosclerosis</italic>. 9(3):313-333. ISSN: 2287-2892. https://doi.org/10.12997/jla.2020.9.3.313</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Wanders</surname>
							<given-names>RJA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Visser</surname>
							<given-names>G</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ferdinandusse</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Vaz</surname>
							<given-names>FM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Houtkooper</surname>
							<given-names>RH.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2020</year>
					<article-title>Mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation disorders: laboratory diagnosis, pathogenesis, and the complicated route to treatment</article-title>
					<source>Journal of Lipid and Atherosclerosis</source>
					<volume>9</volume>
					<issue>3</issue>
					<fpage>313</fpage>
					<lpage>333</lpage>
					<issn>2287-2892</issn>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.12997/jla.2020.9.3.313</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B107">
				<mixed-citation>Wang A, Richhariya A, Gandra SR, Calimlim B, Kim L, Quek RG, Nordyke RJ, Toth PP. 2016. Systematic review of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol apheresis for the treatment of familial hypercholesterolemia. <italic>Journal of the American Heart Association</italic>. 5(7):1-12. ISSN: 2047-9980. https://doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.116.003294</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Wang</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Richhariya</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Gandra</surname>
							<given-names>SR</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Calimlim</surname>
							<given-names>B</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kim</surname>
							<given-names>L</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Quek</surname>
							<given-names>RG</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Nordyke</surname>
							<given-names>RJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Toth</surname>
							<given-names>PP.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2016</year>
					<article-title>Systematic review of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol apheresis for the treatment of familial hypercholesterolemia</article-title>
					<source>Journal of the American Heart Association</source>
					<volume>5</volume>
					<issue>7</issue>
					<fpage>1</fpage>
					<lpage>12</lpage>
					<issn>2047-9980</issn>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/JAHA.116.003294</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B108">
				<mixed-citation>Wang W, Zh N, Yan T, Ya-Ning S, Chen J, Chan-Juan Z, Xue-Jiao X, Duan-Fang L, Qin L. 2020. The crosstalk: exosomes and lipid metabolism. <italic>Cell Communication and Signaling</italic>. 18(3):1-13. ISSN: 1478-811X. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12964-020-00581-2</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Wang</surname>
							<given-names>W</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Zh</surname>
							<given-names>N</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Yan</surname>
							<given-names>T</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ya-Ning</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Chen</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Chan-Juan</surname>
							<given-names>Z</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Xue-Jiao</surname>
							<given-names>X</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Duan-Fang</surname>
							<given-names>L</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Qin</surname>
							<given-names>L.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2020</year>
					<article-title>The crosstalk: exosomes and lipid metabolism</article-title>
					<source>Cell Communication and Signaling</source>
					<volume>18</volume>
					<issue>3</issue>
					<fpage>1</fpage>
					<lpage>13</lpage>
					<issn>1478-811X</issn>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1186/s12964-020-00581-2</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B109">
				<mixed-citation>Weil AP. 2018a. Protein synthesis and the genetic code. In: Rodwell WV, Bender AD, Botham MK, Kennelly JP , Weil AP, <italic>Harper’s Illustrated Biochemistry</italic>. United States: McGraw-Hill Education / Medical. Pp. 955-991. ISBN: 978-1-25-983793-7.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Weil</surname>
							<given-names>AP.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2018</year>
					<chapter-title>Protein synthesis and the genetic code</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Rodwell</surname>
							<given-names>WV</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bender</surname>
							<given-names>AD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Botham</surname>
							<given-names>MK</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kennelly</surname>
							<given-names>JP</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Weil</surname>
							<given-names>AP</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Harper’s Illustrated Biochemistry</source>
					<publisher-loc>United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>McGraw-Hill Education</publisher-name>
					<publisher-name>Medical</publisher-name>
					<fpage>955</fpage>
					<lpage>991</lpage>
					<isbn>978-1-25-983793-7</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B110">
				<mixed-citation>Weil AP. 2018b. RNA synthesis, processing and modification. In: Rodwell WV, Bender AD, Botham MK, Kennelly JP , Weil AP, <italic>Harper’s Illustrated Biochemistry</italic>. United States: McGraw-Hill Education / Medical. Pp. 911-954. ISBN: 978-1-25-983793-7.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Weil</surname>
							<given-names>AP.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2018</year>
					<chapter-title>RNA synthesis, processing and modification</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Rodwell</surname>
							<given-names>WV</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bender</surname>
							<given-names>AD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Botham</surname>
							<given-names>MK</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kennelly</surname>
							<given-names>JP</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Weil</surname>
							<given-names>AP</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Harper’s Illustrated Biochemistry</source>
					<publisher-loc>United States</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>McGraw-Hill Education</publisher-name>
					<publisher-name>Medical</publisher-name>
					<fpage>911</fpage>
					<lpage>954</lpage>
					<isbn>978-1-25-983793-7</isbn>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B111">
				<mixed-citation>Weiner ID, Mitch WE, Sands JM. 2015. Urea and ammonia metabolism and the control of renal nitrogen excretion. <italic>Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology</italic>. 10(8):1444-1458. ISSN: 1555-905X. https://doi.org/10.2215/CJN.10311013</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Weiner</surname>
							<given-names>ID</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Mitch</surname>
							<given-names>WE</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Sands</surname>
							<given-names>JM.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2015</year>
					<article-title>Urea and ammonia metabolism and the control of renal nitrogen excretion</article-title>
					<source>Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology</source>
					<volume>10</volume>
					<issue>8</issue>
					<fpage>1444</fpage>
					<lpage>1458</lpage>
					<issn>1555-905X</issn>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.2215/CJN.10311013</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B112">
				<mixed-citation>Wu T, Jiang Q, Wu D, Hu Y, Chen S, Ding T, Ye X, Liu D, Chen J. 2019. What is new in lysozyme research and its application in food industry? A review. <italic>Food Chemistry</italic>. 274(1):698-709. ISSN: 1873-7072. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.09.017</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Wu</surname>
							<given-names>T</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Jiang</surname>
							<given-names>Q</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Wu</surname>
							<given-names>D</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Hu</surname>
							<given-names>Y</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Chen</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ding</surname>
							<given-names>T</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ye</surname>
							<given-names>X</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Liu</surname>
							<given-names>D</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Chen</surname>
							<given-names>J.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2019</year>
					<article-title>What is new in lysozyme research and its application in food industry? A review</article-title>
					<source>Food Chemistry</source>
					<volume>274</volume>
					<issue>1</issue>
					<fpage>698</fpage>
					<lpage>709</lpage>
					<issn>1873-7072</issn>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.09.017</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B113">
				<mixed-citation>Yang Y, Zhang X, Yu B. 2015. O-Glycosylation methods in the total synthesis of complex natural glycosides. <italic>Natural Product Reports</italic>. 32(9):1331-1355. ISSN: 1460-4752. https://doi.org/10.1039/c5np00033e</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Yang</surname>
							<given-names>Y</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Zhang</surname>
							<given-names>X</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Yu</surname>
							<given-names>B.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2015</year>
					<article-title>O-Glycosylation methods in the total synthesis of complex natural glycosides</article-title>
					<source>Natural Product Reports</source>
					<volume>32</volume>
					<issue>9</issue>
					<fpage>1331</fpage>
					<lpage>1355</lpage>
					<issn>1460-4752</issn>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1039/c5np00033e</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
		</ref-list>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn1">
				
				<p>Clave: e2021-52.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="en">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Literature Review</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Biochemistry and metabolic pathways of polysaccharides, lipids, and proteins</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<abstract>
				<title>ABSTRACT</title>
				<p>The eukaryotic cells are complex structures, capable of replication and performing a wide range of tasks in multicellular organisms. However, they also obey the laws of chemistry and physics that determine the metabolism of living systems. Consequently, cell biology seeks to understand metabolic processes in terms of reactions of anabolism and molecular catabolism. This review considers the chemical composition and properties of polysaccharides, lipids, and proteins as ultimately responsible for all cellular activities. The atoms and biochemical bonds of these macromolecules determine all cell dynamics, which is why the first part of each chapter reviews the nature of the functional group’s hydroxyl, amino and carboxyl, responsible for the formation of monosaccharides, amino acids and fatty acids. The rest of each chapter analyzes the genesis and lysis of these molecules within each cell organelle, for the formation of acetyl-coenzyme A and the liberation of energy in the Krebs cycle. Thus, the biochemistry of cell metabolism can be understood in terms of the structures and functions of three main organic molecules polysaccharides, lipids and proteins. </p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords:</title>
				<kwd>glycogenogenesis</kwd>
				<kwd>glycolysis</kwd>
				<kwd>lipogenesis</kwd>
				<kwd>lipolysis</kwd>
				<kwd>proteogenesis</kwd>
				<kwd>proteolysis</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<def-list id="d2">
				<title>ABBREVIATIONS</title>
				<def-item>
					<term>Aa</term>
					<def>
						<p>amino acids</p>
					</def>
				</def-item>
				<def-item>
					<term>Ac</term>
					<def>
						<p>acetone</p>
					</def>
				</def-item>
				<def-item>
					<term>AcAc</term>
					<def>
						<p>acetoacetate</p>
					</def>
				</def-item>
				<def-item>
					<term>DNA</term>
					<def>
						<p>deoxyribonucleic acid</p>
					</def>
				</def-item>
				<def-item>
					<term>NEFA</term>
					<def>
						<p>non-esterified fatty acids</p>
					</def>
				</def-item>
				<def-item>
					<term>Arg</term>
					<def>
						<p>arginine</p>
					</def>
				</def-item>
				<def-item>
					<term>mRNA</term>
					<def>
						<p>messenger ribonucleic acid</p>
					</def>
				</def-item>
				<def-item>
					<term>tRNA</term>
					<def>
						<p>transfer ribonucleic RNA</p>
					</def>
				</def-item>
				<def-item>
					<term>C</term>
					<def>
						<p>carbon</p>
					</def>
				</def-item>
				<def-item>
					<term>C=O </term>
					<def>
						<p>carbonyl group</p>
					</def>
				</def-item>
				<def-item>
					<term>C16:0 </term>
					<def>
						<p>palmitic</p>
					</def>
				</def-item>
				<def-item>
					<term>C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>3</sub>O<sub>3</sub></term>
					<def>
						<p>pyruvate</p>
					</def>
				</def-item>
				<def-item>
					<term>Ca<sup>2+</sup></term>
					<def>
						<p>calcium ion</p>
					</def>
				</def-item>
				<def-item>
					<term>CO<sub>2</sub></term>
					<def>
						<p>carbon dioxide</p>
					</def>
				</def-item>
				<def-item>
					<term>COCH<sub>3</sub></term>
					<def>
						<p>acetyl group</p>
					</def>
				</def-item>
				<def-item>
					<term>COOH</term>
					<def>
						<p>carboxyl group</p>
					</def>
				</def-item>
				<def-item>
					<term>Gln</term>
					<def>
						<p>glutamine</p>
					</def>
				</def-item>
				<def-item>
					<term>GLU</term>
					<def>
						<p>glucose</p>
					</def>
				</def-item>
				<def-item>
					<term>H</term>
					<def>
						<p>hydrogen</p>
					</def>
				</def-item>
				<def-item>
					<term>H<sub>2</sub>O</term>
					<def>
						<p>water</p>
					</def>
				</def-item>
				<def-item>
					<term>HCO<sub>3</sub></term>
					<def>
						<p>hydrogencarbonate anion</p>
					</def>
				</def-item>
				<def-item>
					<term>N</term>
					<def>
						<p>nitrogen</p>
					</def>
				</def-item>
				<def-item>
					<term>NADPH+H<sup>+</sup></term>
					<def>
						<p>nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate</p>
					</def>
				</def-item>
				<def-item>
					<term>NH<sub>2</sub></term>
					<def>
						<p>amino group</p>
					</def>
				</def-item>
				<def-item>
					<term>NH<sub>4</sub>+</term>
					<def>
						<p>ammonium ion</p>
					</def>
				</def-item>
				<def-item>
					<term>O</term>
					<def>
						<p>oxygen</p>
					</def>
				</def-item>
				<def-item>
					<term>OH</term>
					<def>
						<p>hydroxyl Group</p>
					</def>
				</def-item>
				<def-item>
					<term>PO<sub>4</sub>
 <sup>2</sup></term>
					<def>
						<p>phosphate group</p>
					</def>
				</def-item>
				<def-item>
					<term>TAG</term>
					<def>
						<p>triacylglycerols</p>
					</def>
				</def-item>
				<def-item>
					<term>β-HBA</term>
					<def>
						<p>β-hydroxybutyrate</p>
					</def>
				</def-item>
			</def-list>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>INTRODUCTION</title>
				<p>Eukaryotic cells are composed of water, inorganic ions and thousands of organic molecules (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Cooper, 2019b</xref>). They participate in systems to extract, transform and utilize energy from the environment (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">Tortora <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019b</xref>) which enables organisms to perform mechanical, chemical, osmotic and electrical work (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Ameer <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">Rodwell, 2018a</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">Melo &amp; Cuamatzi, 2019</xref>). Most of these organic molecules belong to one of three classes of polymers: i) polysaccharides, ii) lipids and iii) proteins (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Fails &amp; Magee, 2018a</xref>). These polymers constitute 80-90% of the weight of most cells (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">Pavlinov <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019</xref>) and they are formed by the bonding (polymerization) of several low molecular weight chemical components: carbohydrates, fatty acids and amino acids, respectively (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Guoyao, 2017c</xref>). The interaction between these components is dynamic; changes in one component lead to coordination or compensation changes in another (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">Tortora <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019b</xref>). It is biochemistry that describes in molecular terms, this set of interactions (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">Pol <italic>et al.</italic>, 2014</xref>). Considering two metabolic pathways primarily: i) catabolism to obtain acetyl-Coenzyme A (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">Tortora &amp; Derrickson, 2018b</xref>) and ii) anabolism to acquire larger molecules (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">Pol <italic>et al.</italic>, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Engelking, 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">Menzies <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>). Thus contributing knowledge and practical applications in medicine (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">Gundu, 2020</xref>), agriculture (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">Milani <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>), nutrition (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">Preethi &amp; Sekar 2021</xref>) and industry (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B112">Wu <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>) but their main concern is the cell as a living organism (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Cooper, 2019a</xref>).</p>
				<p>Therefore, this review provides an overview of the molecular dynamics at the interface of polysaccharide, lipid, and protein metabolism to ground the foundations of cell biology.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF POLYSACCHARIDES</title>
				<p>Polysaccharides are organic molecules consisting of more than ten monosaccharides, linked by O-glycosidic bonds (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B113">Yang <italic>et al.</italic>, 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Guoyao, 2017c</xref>). Their general formula contains carbon <bold>(C</bold>) atoms hydrated with water (<bold>H</bold>
 <sub>2</sub>
 <bold>O</bold>) molecules (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Bender &amp; Mayes, 2018c</xref>). Therefore, they exhibit solubility in this fluid and their classification is established based on the position of their carbonyl group (<bold>C=O</bold>) (Chavarría &amp; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Cárabez, 2018</xref>). Formed by a <bold>C</bold> atom bonded to an oxygen atom (<bold>O</bold>) through a double bond (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Cooper, 2019b</xref>). If the C=O group is located at the end of the molecule, it is an aldose. If the C=O group is located in the middle of the molecule, it is a ketose (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">Mckee &amp; Mckee, 2014a</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Delbianco <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>).</p>
				<p>Polysaccharides are the main biological source of energy storage and consumption (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Chavarría &amp; Cárabez, 2018</xref>) and are part of the organic structure of all living beings (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Cooper, 2019b</xref>). Their entry into the organism is from food and their hydrolysis (breaking of O-glycosidic bonds) by amylases produced in the parotid glands ((<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Kumar &amp; Chakravarty, 2018</xref>), and glycogen phosphorylases and glucose-6-phosphatases, produced by the acinar cells of the pancreas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Boticario &amp; Cascales, 2012</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Cárabez <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018a</xref>)). Subsequent to this hydrolysis, the glucose monomer (<bold>GLU</bold>), with the chemical formula C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Bender &amp; Mayes, 2018b</xref>), is released to be absorbed through the intestinal epithelium (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Fails &amp; Magee, 2018a</xref>) and distributed through the bloodstream to the different tissues (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Dashty, 2013</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">Oosterveer &amp; Schoonjans, 2014</xref>), where it presents five main metabolic pathways: (i) glycogenogenesis, (ii) pentose phosphate pathway (iii) glycogenolysis, (iv) glycolysis and (v) glycogenolysis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Appleton <italic>et al.</italic>, 2013a</xref>; Nelson &amp; Cox, 2017b).</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>GLYCOGEN ANABOLISM (GLYCOGENOGENESIS)</title>
				<p>Glycogenogenesis takes place in myocytes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Engelking, 2015</xref>) and hepatocytes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">Tortora &amp; Derrickson, 2018b</xref>), where GLU enters the cytoplasm, to be phosphorylated [addition of a phosphate group (<bold>PO</bold> 
 <sup>2-</sup>)], from adenosine triphosphate (<bold>ATP</bold>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">Rui, 2014</xref>) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f18">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f18">
						<label>Figure 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Glucose-6-phosphate synthesis</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e503-gf18.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>The resulting glucose-6-phosphate is abundant in the cytoplasm of all cells (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Litwack, 2018a</xref>) and when its levels are elevated, phosphoglucomutase transfers the PO<sub>4</sub> group from C6 to C1 synthesizing glucose-1-phosphate (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Delbianco <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>). Uridine triphosphate, interacts with glucose-1-phosphate, forming uridine diphosphate glucose (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Fox <italic>et al.</italic>, 2017</xref>). Insulin activates glycogen synthase 1 expressed in myocytes and/or glycogen synthase 2 expressed in hepatocytes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Gadupudi <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>), so that the hydroxyl (<bold>OH</bold>) group of uridine diphosphate glucose binds to glycogen (creating an <italic>O</italic>- glycosidic bond), elongating the polysaccharide (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f19">Figure 2</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f19">
						<label>Figure 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Glycogenogenesis. Detail of the <italic>O</italic>-glycosidic link</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e503-gf19.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY</title>
				<p>This process takes place in the cytoplasm and is divided into two, the oxidative phase and the non-oxidative phase (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">Tortora &amp; Derrickson, 2018b</xref>). The oxidative phase, presents of three reactions: i) glucose-6-phosphate is dehydrogenated [loses 2 hydrogens (<bold>H</bold>)] (Nelson &amp; Cox, 2017b). As product 6-phosphogluconolactone and a nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (<bold>NADPH+H</bold>
 <sup>+</sup>) molecule are obtained, and ii) 6- phosphogluconolactone is hydrolyzed and as product 6-phosphoglucanate is obtained (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Lee <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019</xref>) and iii) 6-phosphoglucanate is decarboxylated [removal of the carboxyl (<bold>COOH</bold>) group] (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">Mckee &amp; Mckee, 2014b</xref>). As a product ribulose-5-phosphate (ketopentose), an NADPH+H+ molecule and carbon dioxide (<bold>CO</bold>
 <sub>2</sub>) are obtained (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">Stincone <italic>et al.</italic>, 2015</xref>).</p>
				<p>During the non-oxidative phase, ribulose-5-phosphate can undergo isomerization and be transformed into another molecule that has the same atoms, but arranged differently (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Madigan et al., 2019a</xref>). In other words, it changes its C=O group position to become a ribose 5-phosphate (aldopentose) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Cárabez et al., 2018b</xref>). Therefore, the main functions of the pentose phosphate pathway are (i) to synthesize 5-C monosaccharides and (ii) to generate NADPH+H+ (Nelson &amp; Cox, 2017b).</p>
				<p>Durante la fase no oxidativa la ribulosa-5-fosfato, puede presentar isomerización y ser transformada en otra molécula que posee los mismos átomos, pero dispuestos de forma distinta (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Madigan <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019a</xref>). En otra palabras, cambia de posición su grupo C=O para convertirse en a ribosa 5-fosfato (aldopentosa) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Cárabez <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018b</xref>). Por lo tanto, las principales funciones de la ruta de las pentosas fosfato son: i) sintetizar monosacáridos de cinco C y ii) generar NADPH+H<sup>+</sup> (Nelson &amp; Cox, 2017b).</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
			<title>GLYCOGEN CATABOLISM (GLYCOGENOLYSIS </title>
				<p>This process takes place in the cytoplasm of almost all cells, although particularly in muscle myocytes and liver hepatocytes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">Mckee &amp; Mckee, 2014c</xref>). When blood GLU levels are low, adrenaline or epinephrine in muscle and glucagon in liver activate protein kinases (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Ahern, 2019d</xref>), and these perform phosphorylation to glycogen phosphorylase, thereby activating this enzyme <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">(Mckee &amp; Mckee, 2014c</xref>). Glycogen phosphorylase catalyzes the transfer of an inorganic orthophosphate at C1 of glycogen ((<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Fox <italic>et al.</italic>, 2017</xref>), and this change breaks the O-glycosidic bond and releases glucose-1-phosphate (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f20">Figure 3</xref>). Glucose-1-phosphate is transformed into glucose-6-phosphate by transferring the PO <sup>2-</sup> group from C1 to C6 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Ahern, 2019d</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f20">
						<label>Figure 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Glycogenolysis and glucose-1-phosphate synthesis</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e503-gf20.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>GLUCOSE CATABOLISM (GLYCOLYSIS)</title>
				<p>This process consists of the degradation of glucose-6-phosphate to obtain acetyl- coenzyme A from pyruvate (<bold>C</bold>
 <sub>3</sub>
 <bold>H</bold>
 <sub>3</sub>
 <bold>O</bold>
 <sub>3</sub>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Ferrier, 2017b</xref>). It takes place in the cytoplasm where glucose-6-phosphate (aldohexose), shows isomerization (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">Mckee &amp; Mckee, 2014c</xref>) and it is transformed into fructose-6-phosphate (ketohexose) by shifting its C=O group (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f21">Figure 4</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f21">
						<label>Figure 4</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Isomerization of glucose-6-phosphate to fructose-6-phosphate</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e503-gf21.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Fructose-6-phosphate, is phosphorylated (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f22">Figure 5</xref>),
					from ATP at C1 and C6 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">Tortora <italic>et
							al.</italic>, 2019a</xref>), to give rise to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate
						(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Delbianco <italic>et al.</italic>,
						2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Ferrier, 2017a</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f22">
						<label>Figure 5</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Synthesis of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e503-gf22.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Subsequently, fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f23">Figure 6</xref>) is cleaved into two: i) glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and ii) dihydroxyacetone phosphate (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">Melo &amp; Cuamatzi, 2019</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f23">
						<label>Figure 6</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate division</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e503-gf23.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>El gliceraldehido-3-fosfato es oxidado y fosforilado, en los C1 y C3 formando 1,3- bifosfoglicerato () (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f24">Figura 7</xref>). Posteriormente, transfiere su grupo PO <sup>2−</sup>, para sintetizar ATP ) y se transforma en 3-fosfoglicerato.</p>
				<p>Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is oxidized and phosphorylated, at C1 and C3 forming 1,3- bisphosphoglycerate (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">Mckee &amp; Mckee, 2014c</xref>) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f24">Figure 7</xref>). Subsequently, it transfers its PO42- group, to synthesize ATP (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Ahern, 2019b</xref>) and is transformed into 3- phosphoglycerate (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">Voet <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">Tortora &amp; Derrickson, 2018b</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f24">
						<label>Figure 7</label>
						<caption>
							<title>From glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate to 3-phosphoglycerate</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e503-gf24.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>The 3-phosphoglycerate shows isomerization and its PO <sup>2-</sup> group changes from C<sub>3</sub> to C<sub>2</sub>, transforming the molecule into 2-phosphoglycerate (Nelson &amp; Cox, 2017b). Next, enolase promotes the formation of a double bond (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">Voet <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>), eliminating a molecule of H<sub>2</sub>O and forming phosphoenolpyruvate (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Guoyao, 2017f</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Bender &amp; Mayes, 2018a</xref>) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f25">Figure 8</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f25">
						<label>Figure 8</label>
						<caption>
							<title>From 3-phosphoglycerate to phosphoenolpyruvate</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e503-gf25.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Phosphoenolpyruvate transfers its PO<sub>4</sub>
 <sup>2</sup>- group (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Cárabez <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018a</xref>), to synthesize ATP (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Ahern, 2019b</xref>) and is transformed into C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>3</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Botham &amp; Mayes, 2018d</xref>), a molecule that is drawn into the mitochondrial matrix, using the proton-motive force generated by the respiratory chain (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Fails &amp; Magee, 2018b</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Madigan <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019c</xref>) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f26">Figure 9</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f26">
						<label>Figure 9</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e503-gf26.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>The fate of C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>3</sub>O<sub>3</sub> produced in glycolysis depends on the
					availability of O. Under anaerobic conditions
						C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>3</sub>O<sub>3</sub> undergoes reduction by adding H
					atoms to form lactate (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">Tortora &amp;
						Derrickson, 2018b</xref>). Under aerobic conditions
						C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>3</sub>O<sub>3</sub> presents decarboxylation and its
					COOH group is released as CO<sub>2</sub> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97"
						>Stincone <italic>et al.</italic>, 2015</xref>), the rest of the molecule
					presents oxidation, to form the acetyl group (<bold>COCH</bold>
					<sub>3</sub>). Finally, Coenzyme A is transferred to the COCH<sub>3</sub> group
					forming acetyl-Coenzyme A (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Guoyao, 2017f</xref>)
						(<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f27">Figure 10</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f27">
						<label>Figure 10</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e503-gf27.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF LIPIDS</title>
				<p>Lipids constitute an energy storage depot in adipocytes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Guoyao, 2017a</xref>). They participate in the formation of phospholipid membranes of eukaryotic cells and their organelles (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">Schoeler &amp; Caesar, 2019</xref>). In the bloodstream, they transport fat-soluble vitamins e.g. A for soft tissue and mucosal formation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Botham &amp; Mayes, 2018c</xref>), D for calcium ion (<bold>Ca</bold>
 <sup>2+</sup>) absorption (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Jameson, 2017</xref>), E as an antioxidant and erythrocyte formation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Madigan <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019c</xref>) and K that contributes in coagulation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Guoyao, 2017a</xref>). They also act as a thermal insulator in subcutaneous tissues to retain body heat (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">Mas, 2018b</xref>).</p>
				<p>Their entry into the body is from food and their hydrolysis (breaking of ester bonds) by lipases and esterases produced by the acinar cells of the pancreas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Ahern, 2019c</xref>).</p>
				<p>Following this hydrolysis, non-esterified fatty acids (<bold>NEFA</bold>) and triacylglycerols (<bold>TAG</bold>) are released (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">Tortora <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019a</xref>), to be absorbed via the intestinal epithelium (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">Pol <italic>et al.</italic>, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Guoyao, 2017d</xref>), and transported to the hepatocytes of the liver (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Botham &amp; Mayes, 2018c</xref>). Where they are packaged into very low density lipoproteins (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">Wadhera <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>), for subsequent export to peripheral tissues (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107">Wang <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>). The NEFA obtained during this process are necessary to synthesize acetyl-Coenzyme A (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Appleton <italic>et al.</italic>, 2013d</xref>).</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>TRIACYLGLYCEROL ANABOLISM (LIPOGENESIS)</title>
				<p>Lipogenesis initiates in the mitochondria, with the production of acetyl-Coenzyme A (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Cooper, 2019a</xref>). Because the mitochondrial membrane is impermeable to the passage of acetyl-Coenzyme A (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Friedman &amp; Nunnari, 2014</xref>), the tricarboxylate system (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f28">Figure 11</xref>) and citrate synthase are required to convert it to citrate (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">Nunes-Nesi <italic>et al.</italic>, 2013</xref>), via C- binding (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Ameer <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018</xref>), thereby ensuring its entry into the cell cytoplasm (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Botham &amp; Mayes, 2018c</xref>). Citrate is then transformed back into acetyl-coenzyme A by ATP-citrate lyase (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">Nunes-Nesi <italic>et al.</italic>, 2013</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Botham &amp; Mayes, 2018c</xref>), yielding oxaloacetate and adenosine diphosphate (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">Mas, 2018a</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">Tortora &amp; Derrickson, 2018a</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f28">
						<label>Figure 11</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Tricarboxylate system and lipid anabolism</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e503-gf28.jpg"/>
						<attrib>Source: (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">García <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020</xref>). </attrib>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Lipogenesis is an endergonic process, therefore, acetyl-Coenzyme A must be activated by
					carboxylation through its binding to the hydrogencarbonate anion (HCO
						<sup>-</sup>) in an ATP- consuming reaction (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"
						>Botham &amp; Mayes, 2018a</xref>), catalyzed by acetyl-CoA carboxylase
						(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Cooper, 2019b</xref>). As a result,
					acetyl-Coenzyme A is converted to malonyl-Coenzyme A (Nelson &amp; Cox, 2017c).
					In turn, oxaloacetate is reduced by malate dehydrogenase to malate, and this in
					turn converted to C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>3</sub>O<sub>3</sub> by malic enzyme,
					producing NADPH+H<sup>+</sup> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Appleton
							<italic>et al.</italic>, 2013e</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"
						>Dashty, 2013</xref>). Subsequently, the fatty acid requires elongation, via
					the protein complex fatty acid synthase (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">Pol
							<italic>et al.</italic>, 2014</xref>). This complex performs
					condensation, reduction, dehydration and again reduction, coupling
					malonyl-Coenzyme A groups with acetyl-Coenzyme A (Nelson &amp; Cox, 2017c). The
					two reductions mentioned, require NADPH+H<sup>+</sup> (<xref ref-type="bibr"
						rid="B27">Dashty, 2013</xref>), and during elongation two C groups are added
					to the fatty acid, always synthesizing hexadecanoic or palmitic
						(<bold>C16:0</bold>), as the final product (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"
						>Guoyao, 2017d</xref>). Subsequently, C16:0 is released from the protein
					complex and can be elongated by introducing C into its chain, to produce other
					larger fatty acid molecules (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Botham &amp; Mayes,
						2018c</xref>), and/or unsaturated by introducing double bonds into its chain
						(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Cooper, 2019a</xref>). TAG synthesis, takes
					place in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88"
						>Quintero, 2014</xref>).</p>
				<p>Once different NEFAs are obtained, the lipid ester bond, is established by joining the three OH groups of glycerol (Nelson &amp; Cox, 2017c) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f29">Figure 12</xref>), and the COOH group (the polar part) of three fatty acids (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Botham &amp; Mayes, 2018c</xref>). This bond is a condensation or dehydration where 3 molecules of H<sub>2</sub>O are lost (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">Smith, 2020b</xref>). Due to this bonding, the polar groups attached to the carbohydrate are not accessible (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">Pratt <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>). Consequently, non-polar or hydrophobic molecules, highly insoluble in water, are formed (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Dowhan &amp; Bogdanov, 2016</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f29">
						<label>Figure 12</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Formation of triacylglycerol with ester linkage</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e503-gf29.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>TRIACYLGLYCEROL CATABOLISM (LIPOLYSIS) AND KETOGENESIS</title>
				<p>When glycogen stores in the cytoplasm of myocytes and hepatocytes decrease, carnitine palmitoyltransferase is activated (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Longo <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>), stimulating transport of NEFA into the liver mitochondria (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">Merritt <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B108">Wang <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). Wang et al., 2020). Where β-oxidation, leads to a decarboxylation of the NEFA (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">Wanders <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>), the COOH group is released as CO<sub>2</sub> and the rest of the molecule exhibits dehydrogenation, establishing the COCH<sub>3</sub> group (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Botham &amp; Mayes, 2018b</xref>). Coenzyme A, is transferred to the COCH<sub>3</sub> group and forms acetyl-Coenzyme A (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Guoyao, 2017f</xref>). This molecule combines with oxaloacetate for entry into the Krebs cycle (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Appleton <italic>et al</italic>., 2013c</xref>). If its oxidation is complete, CO<sub>2</sub> and pairs of H atoms will be released (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Friedman &amp; Nunnari, 2014</xref>), which will donate their electrons to perform oxidation-reduction reactions (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Madigan <italic>et al</italic>., 2019c</xref>), H<sub>2</sub>O formation and energy storage in the form of ATP (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Jump, 2011</xref>).</p>
				<p>However, if oxaloacetate is not sufficient, acetyl-Coenzyme A accumulates within the mitochondrion (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Longo <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>). Subsequently two molecules of acetyl-Coenzyme A react to form acetoacetyl-CoA, in a reaction catalyzed by thiolase (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">Merritt <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018</xref>). Acetoacetyl-CoA condenses with another acetyl-Coenzyme A molecule to form β- hydroxy-β-methylglutaryl-CoA (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">Mas, 2018a</xref>). From this molecule acetoacetate (<bold>AcAc</bold>) is metabolized, a ketone body that leaves the mitochondria and in the cytoplasm of the hepatocyte can be reduced to β-hydroxybutyrate (<bold>β-HBA</bold>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">Selvaraj <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020</xref>) or slowly and spontaneously decarboxylated to acetone (<bold>Ac</bold>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Deemer <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020</xref>).</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PROTEINS</title>
				<p>Of the three biomolecules discussed, proteins are the only ones that contain nitrogen (<bold>N</bold>) atoms (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Ferrier, 2017c</xref>). They are constituted by the combination of 20 amino acids (<bold>aa</bold>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Ahern, 2019a</xref>), linked by a peptide bond (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Guoyao, 2017b</xref>). This covalent type bond, unites the amino group (<bold>NH</bold>
 <sub>2</sub>) of one aa and the COOH group of another, with the formation of a H<sub>2</sub>O molecule (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Madigan <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019b</xref>). Proteins actively participate in cellular homeostasis ((<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Cooper, 2019b</xref>), e.g., transporting O (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Guoyao, 2017b</xref>), structuring immunoglobulins (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">Kenneth &amp; Casey, 2017</xref>) and constituting enzymes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Ahern, 2019c</xref>).</p>
				<p>They enter the body from food and are hydrolyzed (peptide bond breaking) by peptidases or proteases and aminotransferases, produced by the acinar cells of the pancreas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Ahern, 2019c</xref>). Following this hydrolysis, aa are released (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">Rodwell, 2018a</xref>), to be absorbed through the intestinal epithelium (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Guoyao, 2017e</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">Piña &amp; Flores, 2018</xref>), and transported to the hepatocytes of the liver (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Appleton <italic>et al.</italic>, 2013b</xref>)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Appleton et al., 2013b</xref>), for subsequent export to peripheral tissues (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Fernández &amp; Peimbert, 2018</xref>).</p>
				<p>Within the cell cytoplasm, aa can lose their NH<sub>2</sub> group and as carbon skeletons function as: i) substrate to synthesize C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>3</sub>O<sub>3</sub> and subsequently acetyl-Coenzyme A (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Appleton <italic>et al.</italic>, 2013d</xref>), ii) structure purines and neurotransmitters (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">Rodwell, 2018b</xref>) and iii) participate in proteogenesis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">Rodwell, 2018a</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Madigan <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019b</xref>) or ureogenesis (Nelson &amp; Cox, 2017a) mainly.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>PROTEIN ANABOLISM (PROTEOGENESIS)</title>
				<p>Proteogenesis (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f30">Figure 13</xref>), begins in the cell nucleus (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">Noller, 2017</xref>), with the transcription of transfer ribonucleic acid (<bold>tRNA</bold>) (Nelson &amp; Cox, 2017d; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Madigan <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019d</xref>). Subsequently, the enzyme RNA polymerase performs the transcription of messenger ribonucleic (<bold>mRNA</bold>) from a deoxyribonucleic (<bold>DNA</bold>) sequence (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">Liu <italic>et al.</italic>, 2013</xref>), which serves as a template or mold for the genetic information (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Litwack, 2018b</xref>). The mRNA is transported to the rough endoplasmic reticulum and its ribosomes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B110">Weil, 2018b</xref>). During initiation, a bridge is formed between the minor and major ribosomal subunit (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109">Weil, 2018a</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f30">
						<label>Figure 13</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Proteogenesis, transcription and protein translation</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e503-gf30.jpg"/>
						<attrib>Source: (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">García <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020</xref>)</attrib>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>For their part, tRNA (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f31">Figure 14</xref>), have to bind with different aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">Rodnina &amp; Wintermeyer, 2016</xref>), to expose the NH<sub>2</sub> group of their nitrogenous bases (cytosine, guanine, adenine and uracil) and attach the COOH group of the different aa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">Smith, 2020a</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f31">
						<label>Figure 14</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Transfer ribonucleic acid and its relationship to amino acids in the cytoplasm</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e503-gf31.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>The aa transported on the tRNA enter the ribosomal complex, which has two binding sites: i) the P or peptidyl site and ii) the A or aminoacyl site (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Berk <italic>et al.</italic>, 2006</xref>). Translation is carried out in ribosomes, by reading triplets (three by three nucleotides) called: codon for mRNA and anticodon for tRNA (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">Ingolia, 2014</xref>). The first stage of translation, begins when the 5' end of the mRNA is inserted into the minor ribosomal subunit (Nelson &amp; Cox, 2017d), exposing the initiator codon adenine-uracil-guanine or AUG for binding to the first anticodon uracil-adenine-cytosine or UAC, at the peptidyl site (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Angov, 2011</xref>), originating methionine as the first aa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Madigan <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019</xref>d).</p>
				<p>Subsequently, when the peptidyl site and the aminoacyl site are occupied simultaneously, the peptidyl transferase enzyme establishes a peptide bond between the aa by inserting the former into the latter (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B110">Weil, 2018a</xref>). Then, in elongation codon and anticodon are precisely associated according to the complementarity of their bases (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Dutta &amp; Nandi, 2012</xref>), and this sequence of steps is repeated according to the number of aa contained in the polypeptide (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Madigan <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019b</xref>). As a completion of this process, different proteins and enzymes mainly hydrolases are translated (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98">Swiderek <italic>et al.</italic>, 2015</xref>).</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>PROTEIN CATABOLISM (PROTEOLYSIS) AND UREOGENESIS</title>
				<p>After the gastric and enzymatic digestion of proteins, the breaking of their peptide bonds, and the release and absorption of aa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">Piña &amp; Flores, 2018</xref>), ammonium ion (<bold>NH</bold> 
 <sup>+</sup>) is also obtained (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">Rodwell, 2018a</xref>). This molecule travels to the liver, where its first contact is with periportal hepatocytes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Guoyao, 2017e</xref>), which possess in their structure ureagenic enzymes in charge of urea synthesis (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f32">Figure 15</xref>). In the mitochondria of periportal hepatocytes, HCO<sub>3</sub>-, NH4+ and ATP (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Appleton <italic>et al.</italic>, 2013</xref>b) are condensed to form carbamyl phosphate (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Friedman &amp; Nunnari, 2014</xref>). Ornithine enters the mitochondrion and carbamyl phosphate gives up its carbamyl group to form citrulline (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B111">Weiner <italic>et al.</italic>, 2015</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f32">
						<label>Figure 15</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Ureogenesis</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e503-gf32.jpg"/>
						<attrib>Source: (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">García <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020</xref>) </attrib>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Citrulline exits the mitochondria into the cytoplasm, where it binds to aspartate, forming arginosuccinate (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">Menzies <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>). Arginosuccinate is cleaved into two: i) arginine (<bold>Arg</bold>) and ii) fumarate. Arg is hydrolyzed by arginase releasing urea and ornithine (Nelson &amp; Cox, 2017a). The latter enters the mitochondria to initiate another turn in the cycle (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">Rodwell, 2018a</xref>). Urea in turn, can travel to the kidney (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Guoyao, 2017b</xref>) and be excreted in urine (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">Marini &amp; van Amburgh, 2003</xref>). The NH4+ ion that is not metabolized into urea, has contact with perivascular hepatocytes, which possess in their structure glutamine synthetase (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">Piña &amp; Flores, 2018</xref>), which converts NH <sup>+</sup> ion into glutamine (<bold>Gln</bold>). This polar or hydrophilic aa, presents affinity for H<sub>2</sub>O (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Appleton <italic>et al.</italic>, 2013a</xref>). Therefore, it favors the transport and excretion of NH <sup>+</sup> ion in urine (Rodwell, 2018a).</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE ANABOLISM (KREBS CYCLE)</title>
				<p>The Krebs cycle was discovered by Hans Adolf Krebs (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Appleton <italic>et al.</italic>, 2013c</xref>). It is part of mitochondrial gas exchange (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Madigan <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019c</xref>) and allows the release of stored energy from acetyl-Coenzyme A in the form of the nucleotide ATP (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Botham &amp; Mayes, 2018</xref>d). Acetyl-Coenzyme A binds its COCH<sub>3</sub> group to bind with oxaloacetate to form citrate via a condensation reaction (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">Menzies <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">Verschueren <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019</xref>). During a complete turn of the cycle and through hydrolysis, oxidative decarboxylation and h ydration (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f33">Figure 16</xref>), citrate is converted back to oxaloacetate (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Appleton <italic>et al.</italic>, 2013d</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f33">
						<label>Figure 16</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Krebs cycle</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e503-gf33.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>The C atoms released in the process form CO<sub>2</sub> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Madigan <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019c</xref>). The Krebs cycle consumes per turn one acetyl-Coenzyme A and three NAD<sup>+</sup> (Nelson &amp; Cox, 2017e). It produces for each turn two CO<sub>2</sub> and three NADPH+H<sup>+</sup> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Friedman &amp; Nunnari, 2014</xref>). For each acetyl-Coenzyme A entering the Krebs cycle, 12 ATP are produced (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Appleton <italic>et al.</italic>, 2013c</xref>), each consisting of a purine or purine nitrogenous base (adenine), linked to a ribose (aldopentose) and three PO<sub>4</sub>
 <sup>2</sup>- (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Botham &amp; Mayes, 2018a</xref>) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f34">Figure 17</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f34">
						<label>Figure 17</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Adenosine triphosphate nucleotide (ATP)</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e503-gf34.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>For each GLU (C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub>) entering the cycle, two C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>3</sub>O<sub>3</sub> are produced, which in turn produce two acetyl-Coenzyme A (Nelson &amp; Cox, 2017e). Therefore, for each GLU (C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub>) entering the Krebs cycle, four CO<sub>2</sub>, six NADPH+H<sup>+</sup> and 24 ATP molecules are produced (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Friedman &amp; Nunnari, 2014</xref>).</p>
				<p>The information presented in previous paragraphs, shows how the biomolecules that constitute living organisms, interact to maintain and perpetuate life, governed by the same physical and chemical laws that govern the inert universe. The frontier of knowled ge was organized around central principles or questions of biochemistry and how cells use a relatively small set of carbon-based metabolites to create polymeric molecules, supramolecular structures and information reservoirs. The chemical structure of thes e components defines their cellular function, the end result of which is the transformation and self-perpetuation of that compilation of biomolecules, in short, life.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>CONCLUSIONS</title>
				<p>Eukaryotic cells are composed of water, inorganic ions and organic molecules. They contain carbon chains with hydroxyl, amino and carboxyl functional groups, responsible for the formation of cell tissue. These structures obey the laws of chemistry and physics that determine the metabolism of living systems. Animals, possessing a high chemical complexity and a robust microscopic organization, constitute in their molecular anabolism and catabolism, systems of extraction, transformation and utilization of monosaccharides, amino acids and fatty acids. For the formation of acetyl-Coenzyme A and the release of its energy in the Krebs cycle. Thus, the biochemistry of cellular metabolism can be understood in terms of the structures and functions of three main classes of organic molecules polysaccharides, lipids and proteins.</p>
			</sec>
		</body>
		<back>
			<ack>
				<title>ACKNOWLEDGMENTS</title>
				<p>This work was supported by the National Council of Science and Technology (CONACyT- Mexico) (CONACyT-México) and the project: Metabolic profiles and their implications in veterinary medicine (Universidad de Colima).</p>
			</ack>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">					
					<p>Code: e2021-52.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
		</back>
	</sub-article>
</article>