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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">av</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>Abanico veterinario</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Abanico vet</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">2007-428X</issn>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2448-6132</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sergio Martínez González</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.21929/abavet2021.26</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="other">00118</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artículo Original</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Presencia de <italic>Chlamydia abortus</italic> en cabras con historial de abortos en México</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7643-8576</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Sánchez-Rocha</surname>
						<given-names>Liliana</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3067-2719</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Arellano-Reynoso</surname>
						<given-names>Beatriz</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"><sup>*</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5656-0942</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Hernández-Castro</surname>
						<given-names>Rigoberto</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5561-338X</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Palomares-Resendiz</surname>
						<given-names>Gabriela</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7490-8228</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Barradas-Piña</surname>
						<given-names>Francisco</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1669-1323</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Díaz-Aparicio</surname>
						<given-names>Efrén</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Departamento de Microbiología, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito Exterior de Ciudad Universitaria, Coyoacán, Ciudad de México, 04510, México.</institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<city>Ciudad de México</city>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Departamento de Ecología de Agentes Patógenos, Hospital General “Dr. Manuel Gea González”, Tlalpan, Ciudad de México, 14080, México. </institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Hospital General Dr. Manuel Gea. González</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Departamento de Ecología de Agentes Patógenos</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital General “Dr. Manuel Gea González”</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<city>Ciudad de México</city>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3">
				<label>3</label>
				<institution content-type="original">CENID Salud Animal e Inocuidad, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias, Carretera Federal México-Toluca Km. 15.5, Cuajimalpa, Ciudad de México, 05110, México.</institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<city>Ciudad de México</city>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff4">
				<label>4</label>
				<institution content-type="original">CE La Posta, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias, Km. 22.5 Carretera Federal Veracruz-Córdoba Paso del Toro, C.P. 94277, Municipio de Medellín de Bravo, Veracruz, México. </institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<state>Veracruz</state>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1">
					<label>*</label>Autor responsable y para correspondencia: Beatriz Arellano Reynoso. E-mail: <email>liliana_srocha@hotmail.com,</email>
					<email>arerey@yahoo.com,</email>
					<email>rigo31@yahoo.com,</email>
					<email>gabio_1704@hotmail.com,</email>
					<email>fcobarradast@gmail.com,</email>
					<email>efredia@yahoo.com</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn1">
					<p>Clave: e2021-2.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>31</day>
				<month>10</month>
				<year>2021</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<season>Jan-Dec</season>
				<year>2021</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>11</volume>
			
			<elocation-id>e118</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>02</day>
					<month>03</month>
					<year>2021</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>02</day>
					<month>06</month>
					<year>2021</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
					<license-p>Este es un artículo publicado en acceso abierto bajo una licencia Creative Commons</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>RESUMEN:</title>
				<p><italic>Chlamydia abortus</italic> causa abortos o nacimientos prematuros en rumiantes; adicionalmente, es una zoonosis que puede causar abortos o neumonías en personas que tienen contacto con animales enfermos o sus secreciones. El objetivo de este estudio fue aislar <italic>C. abortus</italic> de cabras mexicanas con historial de aborto y de cabras recién paridas con antecedentes de abortos; se recolectaron 186 muestras de 49 rebaños, en los estados de Coahuila, Jalisco, Puebla, Veracruz y Querétaro. El aislamiento bacteriano de las muestras clínicas fue realizado utilizando la línea celular de fibroblastos de ratón L929 y la identificación molecular se logró mediante la amplificación de un fragmento de 342 pb correspondiente a la región 16S-23S espaciador intergénico ribosomal RNA. Los productos de amplificación se secuenciaron y se compararon con la base de datos GenBank. El aislamiento identificó el 23.1% de las muestras y la PCR identificó el 9.6% como positivas. La búsqueda de homologías reveló una identidad del 100% con <italic>Chlamydia abortus</italic> EF486854, U76710, U68444, entre otras. La presencia de <italic>C. abortus</italic> se confirmó en cabras con antecedentes de aborto en México mediante aislamiento bacteriano, PCR y secuenciación. Estos hallazgos sugieren que <italic>C. abortus</italic> jugó un papel sustancial en cabras con antecedentes de aborto en México.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
				<title>Palabras clave:</title>
				<kwd>Chlamydia abortus</kwd>
				<kwd>caprinos</kwd>
				<kwd>abortos</kwd>
				<kwd>México</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="2"/>
				<table-count count="2"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="33"/>
				<page-count count="1"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>INTRODUCCIÓN</title>
			<p>La clamidiosis es una enfermedad infecciosa que se da en ovejas, cabras y vacas en todo el mundo y que provoca trastornos reproductivos, como abortos, partos muertos y crías débiles o prematuras que mueren poco después de nacer. El agente etiológico, <italic>Chlamydia abortus</italic>, es la principal causa de pérdidas reproductivas en cabras y ovejas en los países del norte de Europa, y causa aproximadamente el 44% de todos los abortos infecciosos diagnosticados en el Reino Unido (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Stuen y Longbottom, 2011</xref>). Como zoonosis, <italic>C</italic>. <italic>abortus</italic> presenta el mayor riesgo para las mujeres embarazadas, ya que es capaz de colonizar la placenta humana provocando el aborto. También se ha descrito una neumonía respiratoria atípica en trabajadores que estuvieron en contacto con rumiantes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Longbottom y Coulter, 2003</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Ortega <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Pichon <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). <italic>Chlamydia</italic> es una bacteria Gram negativa y un parásito intracelular obligado. Presenta un ciclo de desarrollo multimórfico asíncrono con dos estadíos, los cuerpos elementales y reticulares, ambos con lipopolisacáridos. A diferencia de la pared celular típica de las bacterias, las paredes celulares de <italic>Chlamydia</italic> no presentan ácido murámico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Rodolakis y Laroucau, 2015</xref>).</p>
			<p>En México, la clamidiosis en cabras y ovejas, así como el papel de <italic>Chlamydia</italic> en los abortos de las ovejas se reportaron por primera vez en la década de 1990 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Escalante <italic>et al., 1996</italic></xref>). El primer aislamiento de <italic>C. abortus</italic> (entonces <italic>C. psittaci</italic> serotipo 1) en cabras se publicó en 1997 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Escalante <italic>et al</italic>., 1997</xref>). En 2001, se demostró la presencia de Chlamydia en un proceso zoonótico originado en un rebaño de cabras infectado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Escalante et al., 2001</xref>). En 2004 se demostró la presencia de <italic>C. abortus</italic> (entonces <italic>Chlamydophila abortus</italic>) en cabras mediante serología y aislamiento, y de nuevo en 2005, 2006 y 2008 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Lazcano, 2006</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Soriano <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>). En 2011, un estudio encontró <italic>C. abortus</italic> en el 26,9% de las cabras muestreadas en el estado de Guanajuato, México, alcanzando un 9,60% de seropositividad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Mora <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Palomares <italic>et al</italic>. (2020)</xref> evaluaron la frecuencia serológica individual y del rebaño, así como los factores de riesgo para <italic>C. abortus</italic> en siete estados productores de ovinos en México, e identificaron el aborto enzoótico en ovejas. Teniendo en cuenta estos antecedentes, el objetivo de este estudio fue determinar si <italic>C. abortus</italic> está presente en los casos de aborto caprino en diferentes regiones de México.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="materials|methods">
			<title>MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS</title>
			<sec>
				<title>Muestras</title>
				<p>Este estudio se realizó entre agosto de 2016 y febrero de 2018. Se obtuvo un total de 186 exudados vaginales de 49 rebaños con abortos reportados en cinco estados de México. El estado de Coahuila proporcionó 82 muestras (44,10%) de 24 rebaños, seguido de Veracruz con 67 muestras (36,02%) de 18 rebaños, Jalisco con 25 muestras (13,44%) de tres rebaños, Querétaro con siete muestras (3,76%) de un rebaño y Puebla con cinco muestras (2,68%) de tres rebaños.</p>
				<p>Todas las hembras muestreadas eran de raza mixta y las condiciones de cría variaban según el estado. Las muestras de Jalisco y Querétaro procedían de rebaños estabulados y mantenidos como reproductores bajo un manejo intensivo. Estos animales se alimentaban con dietas equilibradas con suplementos minerales y no coexistían con otras especies animales. En cambio, los caprinos de Puebla, Coahuila y Veracruz se mantenían en condiciones de manejo extensivo para la producción de carne, ya sea comercial o de consumo no comercial. Estos rebaños pasaban las mañanas pastando en la vegetación no manejada y a lo largo de los bordes de los caminos y eran encerrados durante la noche sin suplemento alimenticio adicional. Estas cabras convivían con otras especies animales en los corrales, principalmente con ovejas y pollos, así como con caballos, perros y gatos.</p>
				<p>Se tomaron muestras de cabras que habían abortado recientemente o de cabras que habían parido recientemente con un historial de abortos (no más de 30 días en ambos casos). Las muestras vaginales se tomaron con hisopos estériles y se transportaron en tubos con 2 ml de medio de sacarosa-fosfato/glutamato (SPG) (217 mm de sacarosa, 4 mm de KH<sub>2</sub>PO<sub>4</sub>, 7 mm de K<sub>2</sub>HPO<sub>4</sub> y 1% de L-glutamina), complementado con 10% de suero fetal bovino (FBS; GIBCO, EE.UU.) y antibióticos (100 μg/ml de estreptomicina, 50 μg/ml de gentamicina; Invitrogen, EE.UU.) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Sachse <italic>et al</italic>., 2009</xref>). En el laboratorio, las muestras se mantuvieron a -20°C hasta su procesamiento. Los experimentos con muestras y <italic>Chlamydia</italic> viva se realizaron en un laboratorio de bioseguridad de tipo III. Para la técnica de inmunofluorescencia y las reacciones de PCR, utilizamos una cepa de <italic>C. abortus</italic> A.22 amablemente donada por Petter C. Griffiths del Central Veterinary Laboratory, Reino Unido, en 1993. Esta muestra fue importada con el certificado zoosanitario nº 27491.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Aislamiento bacteriano</title>
				<p>El aislamiento bacteriano se realizó en fibroblastos de ratón de la línea celular L929. Las células se cultivaron en un medio mínimo esencial de Eagle (EEMM; Invitrogen, EE.UU.), complementado con un 10% de suero bovino fetal (FBS), un 1% de aminoácidos no esenciales, un 1% de L-glutamina a 37°C y un 5% de CO<sub>2</sub> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Escalante <italic>et al</italic>., 1996</xref>). Para la identificación de los cuerpos clamidiales, se utilizaron 0,9×10<sup>5</sup> células por pocillo, en placas de cultivo de poliestireno de 24 pocillos con cubreobjetos de vidrio estériles de 12 mm de diámetro (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Mora <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>). La identificación de las inclusiones intracitoplasmáticas producidas por <italic>C. abortus</italic> se llevó a cabo mediante la técnica de inmunofluorescencia directa, utilizando las pruebas comerciales IMGEN Chlamydia (OXOID, Reino Unido) según las instrucciones del fabricante. Las inclusiones intracitoplasmáticas se visualizaron en un microscopio UV (Leica DM1000) con objetivos de 40X y 100X. Se consideró que una muestra era negativa después de dos pases ciegos sin detección de inclusiones intracitoplasmáticas.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Extracción de ADN</title>
				<p>Las muestras de exudado vaginal se homogeneizaron y luego se transfirieron 500 μl de cada una a un microtubo estéril que se inactivó a 80°C durante 20 min. A continuación, se añadieron 100 μl de tampón NET (50 mM NaCl, 125 mM EDTA, 50 mM Tris HCl, pH 7,6) y 50 μl de SDS al 24% (3,4% de concentración final) y se incubaron a 80°C durante 10 min. Después, añadimos ARNasa a 75 μg/ml de concentración final, y se incubó durante 2 h a 50°C, seguido de proteinasa K (USB, Ohio, USA) a una concentración final de 325 μg/ml y se incubó a 50°C durante 90 min más. A continuación, añadimos un volumen 25:24:1 de fenol, cloroformo y alcohol isoamilico (Sigma-Aldrich, USA), mezclamos durante 15 min y centrifugamos a 16.060 <italic>g</italic> durante 5 min a temperatura ambiente.</p>
				<p>Por último, se añadieron 0,6 volúmenes de isopropanol al sobrenadante y se centrifugó a 16.060 <italic>g</italic> durante 15 min. El ADN resultante se lavó con etanol frío al 70% y se centrifugó a 16.060 <italic>g</italic> durante 5 min. El ADN se resuspendió con 25 μl de agua libre de ADNasa.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Identificación molecular</title>
				<p>La identificación molecular se realizó mediante PCR utilizando cebadores que amplifican un espaciador intergénico de ARN ribosómico 16S-23S de 342 pb. Los cebadores se diseñaron con el programa IDT SciTools Primer QuestSM, utilizando la secuencia del operón ribosómico de <italic>C. abortus</italic> A.22 depositada en GenBank con el número de acceso U68444.1 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Everett <italic>et al</italic>., 1997</xref>). Las reacciones de PCR se realizaron en un volumen final de 50 μl, incluyendo un tampón de PCR 1X, 3 mM de MgCl2, 400 μM de dNTP's, 25 pmol de cada cebador, 1 U de DreamTaq Polymerase (Thermo, USA), y 50 ng de ADN. La cepa <italic>C. abortus</italic> A.22 se utilizó como control positivo.</p>
				<p>El protocolo de amplificación consistió en un ciclo inicial de desnaturalización de 5 min a 95°C, 40 ciclos a 95°C durante 1 min, 63°C durante 30 s, 72°C durante 1 min y una extensión final a 72°C durante 10 min. Los productos de amplificación se observaron en un gel de agarosa al 1% (Thermo, USA) teñido con bromuro de etidio (0,5 μg/ml).</p>
				<p>Las muestras que resultaron positivas para <italic>C. abortus</italic> mediante la PCR se purificaron utilizando el sistema comercial de extracción en gel QIAquick, siguiendo las instrucciones del fabricante. La secuenciación del producto se realizó en ambas direcciones mediante el método de secuenciación por fluorescencia Taq FS Dye Terminator. La secuencia consenso y la alineación de la secuencia se lograron con el programa Vector NTI.</p>
				<p>Las secuencias del espaciador intergénico del ARN ribosómico 16S-23S obtenidas en este estudio se sometieron a búsquedas BLAST en la base de datos GenBank. Se establecieron alineamientos múltiples utilizando las secuencias del género <italic>Chlamydia</italic> disponibles en el GenBank con los algoritmos Clustal W y Muscle incluidos en el software MEGA versión 7.0.26 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Kumar <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>). La reconstrucción filogenética se realizó mediante un enfoque bayesiano con MrBayes versión 3.2 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Ronquist <italic>et al</italic>., 2012</xref>). El análisis se realizó durante 3.000.000 de generaciones con árboles de muestreo cada 100 generaciones. Los árboles con puntuaciones inferiores a las de la fase estacionaria (&quot;burn-in&quot;) fueron descartados, y los árboles que alcanzaron la fase estacionaria fueron recogidos y utilizados para construir árboles de consenso mayoritario.</p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="results">
			<title>RESULTADOS</title>
			<p>Se infectaron células L929 con muestras clínicas y se utilizó la inmunofluorescencia para visualizar las inclusiones clamidiales. En total, se encontraron inclusiones en 43 de 186 muestras evaluadas (23,11%), es decir, 18 de 82 muestras de Coahuila, 13 de 67 de Veracruz, 7 de 25 de Jalisco y 5 de 7 de Querétaro (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">cuadro 1</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t1">
					<label>Tabla 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Resumen de los resultados obtenidos de las técnicas bacteriológicas y de PCR empleadas en las muestras de exudados vaginales</title>
					</caption>
					<table>
						<colgroup>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
						</colgroup>
						<thead>
							
						
						<tr>
								<th align="center">Origen - Estados</th>
								<th align="center">Muestras</th>
							<th align="center">Positivo al aislamiento bacteriano</th>
								<th align="center">Positivo al PCR</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody>
							<tr>
								<td align="center">Veracruz</td>
								<td align="center">67</td>
								<td align="center">13</td>
								<td align="center">2</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="center">Jalisco</td>
								<td align="center">25</td>
								<td align="center">7</td>
								<td align="center">5</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="center">Coahuila</td>
								<td align="center">82</td>
								<td align="center">18</td>
								<td align="center">5</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="center">Queretaro</td>
								<td align="center">7</td>
								<td align="center">5</td>
								<td align="center">6</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="center">Puebla</td>
								<td align="center">5</td>
								<td align="center">0</td>
								<td align="center">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="center">Total</td>
								<td align="center">186</td>
								<td align="center">43</td>
								<td align="center">18</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="center">Porcentaje total</td>
								<td align="center">100 %</td>
								<td align="center">23.19 %</td>
								<td align="center">9.68 %</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p>El análisis por PCR reveló que 18 de las 186 muestras de ADN de exudado vaginal eran positivas para <italic>C. abortus</italic>. En todas las regiones muestreadas, Querétaro tuvo seis muestras positivas, Coahuila y Jalisco tuvieron cinco muestras positivas cada uno, Veracruz tuvo dos y las muestras de Puebla no tuvieron resultados positivos.</p>
			<p>Identificamos que la zona de amplificación incluía 70 pb de la subunidad ribosomal 16S, una región intergénica de 105 pb, la subunidad ribosomal 5S de 115 pb, otra región intergénica de 3 pb y la subunidad ribosomal 23S de 49 pb. Las secuencias fueron editadas con el programa Vector NTI y se realizó una búsqueda de homología en la base de datos GenBank (BLASTn), encontrando una identidad del 100% con <italic>Chlamydia abortus</italic> EF486854, U76710, U68444, entre otras. La <italic>Chlamydia abortus</italic> FMVZ455365 fue la única cepa que presentó una homología diferente a las otras cepas, esto debido a un simple cambio en una base C/T en la posición 236, sin embargo esta cepa mostró 100 identidades con <italic>C. abortus</italic> CP031646, LS450958 y KX870501, entre otras. Las secuencias completas obtenidas para <italic>C. abortus</italic> se depositaron en el GenBank con los números de acceso FMVZ0Y55 (MZ093042), FMVZ455376 (MZ099638), FMVZ0Y54 (MZ099636), FMVZ455365 (MZ093041), FMVZ45535 (MZ093043), FMVZ9505 (MZ099635) y FMVZ9595 (MZ099634) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f1">
					<label>Figura 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Árbol filogenético bayesiano utilizando las secuencias de ARN ribosomal 16S para diferentes especies del género <italic>Chlamydia</italic>. Los números de los nodos indican los valores de soporte o probabilidad posterior. Las muestras indicadas con flechas son las obtenidas en este estudio</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e118-gf1.gif"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="discussion">
			<title>DISCUSIÓN</title>
			<p>Los resultados revelaron la presencia de <italic>C. abortus</italic> en cabras de cuatro de los cinco estados mexicanos muestreados. En un estudio anterior, se aisló <italic>C. abortus</italic> en cabras del estado de Guanajuato que habían abortado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Mora <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>).</p>
			<p>Existen diferentes causas de aborto infeccioso o no infeccioso en rumiantes, y la desnutrición durante la gestación parece ser la más común en los sistemas de producción caprina extensiva. La falta de alimento, las largas distancias entre las zonas de pastoreo y de refugio, la exposición a altas temperaturas y la escasez de agua potable son condiciones de pastoreo frecuentes durante la estación seca que pueden causar estrés que conduce al aborto. Sin embargo, dado que <italic>C. abortus</italic> es siempre un patógeno y no forma parte de la flora bacteriana, el aislamiento de este microorganismo en rebaños en los que varios animales presentan fallos reproductivos puede tomarse como un diagnóstico definitivo y preciso (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Mellado <italic>et al</italic>., 2004</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Urrutia <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">OIE, 2018</xref>).</p>
			<p>El aislamiento es la prueba de referencia para demostrar la presencia de <italic>C. abortus</italic>, pero las inconsistencias en el cultivo celular, incluyendo la muerte durante el transporte, la conservación inadecuada de la muestra o la contaminación pueden conducir a una baja sensibilidad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Thejls <italic>et al.</italic>, 1994</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Sachse <italic>et al</italic>., 2009</xref>). Al complementar el aislamiento con la PCR, encontramos 18/186 (9,23%) muestras positivas. Nuestros resultados son inferiores a los descritos por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Mora <italic>et al</italic>. (2015)</xref>, quienes informaron de 30/125 (24%) muestras de exudado vaginal positivas a la PCR y pudieron confirmar el 88,23% de las muestras positivas obtenidas por aislamiento. En el presente estudio, la PCR solo confirmó el 42,8% de los resultados positivos observados mediante aislamiento. Es posible que hayamos observado falsos negativos debido a la baja carga bacteriana de la muestra, la contaminación cruzada de la muestra o porque otros elementos presentes en las muestras de exudado vaginal pueden haber inhibido la PCR (OIE, 2018). Se sabe que algunos elementos normalmente presentes en las muestras clínicas a veces afectan a la sensibilidad del ensayo, o incluso impiden la amplificación del ADN (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Schrader <italic>et al</italic>., 2012</xref>). Entre estos elementos se encuentran los polisacáridos, el calcio, el colágeno, la hemoglobina, la sacarosa y las proteinasas que se originan en el propio animal o en su flora bacteriana.</p>
			<p>Por el contrario, aunque inferior a la de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Mora <italic>et al</italic>. (2015)</xref>, nuestra tasa de confirmación de positividad por PCR fue superior a la reportada por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Campos-Hernández <italic>et al</italic>. (2014)</xref>. En ese estudio, que evaluó 246 muestras mediante PCR, la presencia de <italic>C. abortus</italic> solo pudo confirmarse en el bazo de un feto abortado. Asimismo, nuestros resultados de positividad por PCR son superiores a los de algunos estudios europeos. Un informe de Italia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Chisu <italic>et al.,</italic> 2013</xref>) utilizó la PCR para detectar 3/40 (7,5%) muestras positivas en rebaños de ovejas con alta incidencia de abortos. En contraste con nuestro estudio, su evaluación tenía menos muestras, pero estas provenían de placentas. Por otro lado, un estudio en Alemania (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Lenzko <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>) muestreó 32 rebaños de cabras con tasas de aborto inferiores al 1%. Analizaron 352 exudados vaginales mediante PCR, y sus resultados revelaron que 28 animales (7,95%) eran positivos a <italic>C. abortus</italic>. Estos datos indican que las infecciones por <italic>Chlamydia</italic> ocurren con frecuencia en esta región incluso en ausencia de altas tasas de aborto, esto podría deberse a la endemicidad de la enfermedad en la región (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Lenzko <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>).</p>
			<p>Aunque las placentas y los fetos abortados son los tejidos con mayor carga bacteriana y, por tanto, la mejor fuente para el aislamiento bacteriano (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Sachse <italic>et al</italic>., 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Rodolakis y Laroucau, 2015</xref>), las condiciones de cría del rebaño muestreado hacían inviable la recogida de estos tejidos. La mayoría de los rebaños de nuestro estudio se mantienen bajo sistemas de manejo extensivo, donde las cabras sin supervisión recorren muchos kilómetros para llegar a los pastos comunales. Como estas condiciones de campo hacen inviable la recuperación y recogida de fetos y placentas, en su lugar tomamos muestras de exudados vaginales. Los estudios realizados tanto en México como en otros países han demostrado que los exudados vaginales son muestras adecuadas y pueden utilizarse ampliamente para el diagnóstico. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Papp <italic>et al.</italic>, 1994</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Jiménez-Estrada <italic>et al.</italic>, 2008</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Gutierrez <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Campos-Henández <italic>et al.</italic>, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Mora <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Laroucau <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">O' Neill <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019</xref>)</p>
			<p>Aunque se acepta que trabajar con tejidos que tienen una alta carga bacteriana favorece el nivel de sensibilidad de la PCR (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Livingstone <italic>et al</italic>. 2009</xref>), otros estudios en México han utilizado con éxito la PCR para detectar <italic>C. abortus</italic> en exudados vaginales. En 2008, un estudio analizó 304 exudados vaginales de ovejas con historial de abortos procedentes del Estado de México. Este estudio encontró un 0,65% de positividad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Jiménez-Estrada <italic>et al.</italic>, 2008</xref>) que es una tasa de positividad menor que la de nuestros resultados. Es posible que las prácticas ganaderas que permiten la interacción entre ovejas y cabras predispongan la diseminación de <italic>Chlamydia</italic> entre rebaños.</p>
			<p>Como parte de la identificación de las especies de <italic>Chlamydia</italic> implicadas en nuestro estudio, y concretamente para descartar la posibilidad de que otra bacteria sea responsable de los abortos en las cabras (concretamente <italic>C. pecorum</italic>), fue necesario complementar la PCR con la secuenciación de fragmentos amplificados.</p>
			<p>Las secuencias mostraron una alta identidad con la mayoría de las secuencias de <italic>C. abortus</italic>, disponibles en las bases de datos. Se obtuvo un resultado similar cuando se realizaron análisis filogenéticos, observando poca variación en el clado de <italic>C. abortus</italic> FMVZ455365, que un aparentemente separado de las cepas mexicanas de <italic>C. abortus</italic> con una probabilidad posterior del 98 y 99%, respectivamente.</p>
			<p>A partir de 2016, la clamidiasis se considera endémica en México (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">DOF, 2016</xref>). Antes de esto, había sido considerada exótica, lo que impedía la implementación de técnicas de diagnóstico y medidas de control, lo que a su vez favorecía la propagación de la enfermedad. Es posible que las consecuencias de la presencia de <italic>Chlamydia abortus</italic> en México sean similares a las reportadas a nivel mundial, y que la falta de herramientas de detección necesarias haya favorecido su presencia en México sin que se haga evidente (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Sachse <italic>et al</italic>., 2009</xref>). Además, el análisis de los estudios de ovejas y cabras puede mostrar que la bacteria se ha diseminado por todo el país, pero no en la misma proporción en las diferentes regiones. De hecho, los resultados serológicos positivos de zonas de México con importantes poblaciones caprinas (distribuidas por el norte, centro, oeste y este del país) parecen mostrar que la falta de diagnóstico rutinario antes del transporte de los animales ha fomentado la diseminación de la enfermedad, y los riesgos sanitarios y socioeconómicos concomitantes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Mora <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Campos-Henández <italic>et al.</italic>, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Jiménez-Estrada <italic>et al.</italic>, 2008</xref>).</p>
			<p>El objetivo de nuestro estudio fue determinar la presencia de Chlamydia spp. en algunas regiones importantes de producción caprina en México. Aunque el tipo de muestreo que utilizamos no nos permitió medir la prevalencia de la enfermedad, nuestros resultados mostraron que <italic>Chlamydia abortus</italic> se aisló en el 23% de las cabras que habían sufrido abortos. Esto evidencia que <italic>C. abortus</italic> es un patógeno importante que requiere atención así como la implementación de medidas de control, tanto en cabras como en otras especies productivas en las que tenemos evidencia de la enfermedad. Estudios serológicos recientes en vacas lecheras mexicanas con abortos y trastornos reproductivos mostraron que de un total de 833 muestras analizadas, 90 (10,8%) resultaron positivas a <italic>C. abortus</italic>. En el estado de Guanajuato, el 6% (15/237) de los animales resultaron seropositivos y el 18,5% (15/81) de los rebaños muestreados tienen al menos un animal seropositivo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Limón et al., 2011</xref>). En un estudio serológico realizado en rebaños de ovejas entre 2011 y 2013, se analizaron 5.321 muestras de sangre de ovejas de 209 unidades de producción de 61 municipios de siete estados de México, y se encontraron tasas de positividad entre el 24% y el 67% (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Palomares <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020</xref>). Es necesario realizar más investigaciones sobre la prevalencia y la distribución de <italic>C. abortus</italic> para entender mejor su impacto en las cabras y la producción en México. También es necesario implementar medidas pertinentes para controlar y prevenir la transmisión de <italic>C. abortus</italic> entre los animales para evitar la infección humana. Además, es necesario prestar especial atención a la educación y concienciación sobre el riesgo de la enfermedad para las personas que trabajan directamente con los animales, así como en los laboratorios de microbiología, dado que los casos humanos de infecciones por <italic>C. abortus</italic> se derivan de la exposición a ovejas y cabras infectadas, aerosoles y materiales contaminados (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Longbottom y Coulter, 2003</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Ortega <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Pichon <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>).</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>CONCLUSIÓN</title>
			<p>El presente estudio confirma que <italic>Chlamydia abortus</italic> se encuentra en cabras mexicanas que han tenido abortos, en los estados de Coahuila, Jalisco, Querétaro y Veracruz. Además, que <italic>Chlamydia abortus</italic> es el agente etiológico de la clamidiosis, lo que apoya y confirma la presencia de clamidiosis en México. Es de suma importancia estudiar la distribución de esta bacteria en todo México, con el fin de implementar medidas de prevención y control para evitar la propagación de la enfermedad, así como para disminuir el riesgo de infección en humanos.</p>
			<sec>
				<title>Declaración de conflicto de intereses</title>
				<p>Los autores no tienen nada que declarar.</p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
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		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Original Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Presence of <italic>Chlamydia abortus</italic> in goats with a history of abortions in Mexico</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<author-notes>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
					<p>Code: e2021-2.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>ABSTRACT:</title>
				<p><italic>Chlamydia abortus</italic> causes a series of reproductive disorders in ruminants, including abortions, premature births and stillbirths. Additionally, as a zoonosis, it can cause miscarriages or pneumonia in people who come in contact with sick animals or their secretions. The objective of this study was to isolate <italic>C. abortus</italic> from Mexican goats with a history of abortion and from recently parturient goats with a history of abortion; 186 samples were collected from 49 herds in the states of Coahuila, Jalisco, Puebla, Veracruz and Querétaro. Bacterial isolation of the clinical samples was performed using the mouse fibroblast cell line L929 and molecular identification was achieved by amplification of a 342 bp fragment corresponding to the 16S-23S ribosomal intergenic spacer RNA region. The amplification products were sequenced and compared with the GenBank database. Isolation identified 23.1% of the samples and PCR identified 9.6% as positive. Homology search revealed 100% identity with <italic>Chlamydia abortus</italic> EF486854, U76710, U68444, among others. The presence of <italic>C. abortus</italic> was confirmed in goats with a history of abortion in Mexico by bacterial isolation, PCR and sequencing. These findings suggest that <italic>C. abortus</italic> played a substantial role in goats with a history of abortion in Mexico.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords:</title>
				<kwd>Chlamydia abortus</kwd>
				<kwd>goats</kwd>
				<kwd>abortions</kwd>
				<kwd>Mexico</kwd>
				<kwd>chlamydiosis</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>INTRODUCTION</title>
				<p>Chlamydiosis is an infectious disease that occurs in sheep, goats, and cows globally, causing reproductive disorders including abortions, stillbirths, and weak or premature offspring that die shortly after birth. The etiologic agent, <italic>Chlamydia abortus</italic>, is the main cause of reproductive losses in goats and sheep in northern European countries, and causes approximately 44% of all diagnosed infectious abortions in the United Kingdom (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Stuen and Longbottom, 2011</xref>). As a zoonosis, <italic>C. abortus</italic> presents the greatest risk to pregnant women, because it is able to colonize the human placenta leading to abortion. Atypical respiratory pneumonia has also been described in workers who came into contact with ruminants (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Longbottom and Coulter, 2003</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Ortega <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Pichon <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). <italic>Chlamydia</italic> is a Gram-negative bacterium and an obligate intracellular parasite. It presents an asynchronous multimorphic development cycle with two stages, the elementary and reticular bodies, both of which possess lipopolysaccharides. Unlike the typical bacterial cell wall, <italic>Chlamydia</italic> cell walls do not present muramic acid (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Rodolakis and Laroucau, 2015</xref>).</p>
				<p>In Mexico, chlamydiosis in goats and sheep, as well as the role of <italic>Chlamydia</italic> in ewe abortions were first reported in the 1990s (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Escalante <italic>et al</italic>., 1996</xref>). The first isolation of <italic>C. abortus</italic> (then <italic>C. psittaci</italic> serotype 1) in goats was published in 1997 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Escalante <italic>et al</italic>., 1997</xref>). In 2001, <italic>Chlamydia</italic> was shown to be present in a zoonotic process that originated in an infected goat herd (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Escalante <italic>et al</italic>., 2001</xref>). <italic>C. abortus</italic> (then <italic>Chlamydophila abortus</italic>) was demonstrated in goats using serology and isolation in 2004, and again in 2005, 2006 and 2008 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Lazcano, 2006</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Soriano <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>). In 2011, a study found <italic>C. abortus</italic> in 26.9% of sampled goats in the state of Guanajuato, Mexico, reaching 9.60% seropositivity (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Mora <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Palomares <italic>et al</italic>. (2020</xref>) evaluated individual and herd serological frequency, as well as risk factors for <italic>C. abortus</italic> in seven sheep-producing states in Mexico, and identified enzootic abortion in ewes. Given this background, the goal of this study was to determine whether <italic>C. abortus</italic> is present in cases of goat abortion across different regions of Mexico.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="materials|methods">
				<title>MATERIAL AND METHODS</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Samples</title>
					<p>This study was carried out between August 2016 and February 2018. We obtained a total of 186 vaginal exudates from 49 herds with reported abortions across five states in Mexico. The state of Coahuila provided 82 samples (44.10%) from 24 herds, followed by Veracruz with 67 samples (36.02%) from 18 herds, Jalisco with 25 samples (13.44%) from three herds, Querétaro with seven samples (3.76%) from one herd, and Puebla with five samples (2.68%) from three herds.</p>
					<p>All sampled does were mixed-breed, and husbandry conditions varied by state. Samples from Jalisco and Queretaro came from stabled herds kept as breeding stock under intensive management. These animals were fed balanced diets with mineral supplementation and did not coexist with other animal species. In contrast, goats from Puebla, Coahuila and Veracruz were kept under extensive management conditions for meat production, either commercially or for non-market consumption. These herds spent mornings grazing on unmanaged vegetation and along roadsides and were penned overnight without additional food supplementation. These goats coexisted with other animal species in the corrals, mainly with sheep and chickens, as well as horses, dogs and cats.</p>
					<p>We sampled goats that had recently aborted or does that had recently given birth with a history of abortions (no more than 30 days in both cases). Vaginal samples were taken using sterile swabs and transported in tubes with 2 ml of sucrose-phosphate/glutamate (SPG) medium (217 mM sucrose, 4 mM KH2PO4, 7 mM K2HPO4, and 1% L-glutamine), supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS; GIBCO, USA) and antibiotics (100 μg/ml streptomycin, 50 μg/ml gentamicin; Invitrogen, USA) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Sachse <italic>et al</italic>., 2009</xref>). In the laboratory, samples were kept at -20°C until processing. Experiments involving samples and live <italic>Chlamydia</italic> were performed in a type III biosafety laboratory. For the immunofluorescent technique and PCR reactions, we used a C. <italic>abortus</italic> A.22 strain kindly donated by Petter C. Griffiths from The Central Veterinary Laboratory, United Kingdom, in 1993. This sample was imported under zoosanitary certificate No. 27491.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Bacterial isolation</title>
					<p>Bacterial isolation was performed in mouse fibroblasts from cell line L929. Cells were cultured in Eagle’s essential minimum medium (EEMM; Invitrogen, USA), supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS), 1% non-essential amino acids, 1% L-glutamine at 37°C, and 5% CO2 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Escalante <italic>et al</italic>., 1996</xref>). To identify chlamydial bodies, we used 0.9×105 cells per well, in 24-well polystyrene culture plates with 12-mm diameter sterile glass coverslips (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Mora <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>). Identification of intracytoplasmic inclusions produced by <italic>C. abortus</italic> was carried out via direct immunofluorescent technique, using commercial IMGEN Chlamydia tests (OXOID, UK) according to manufacturer’s instructions. Intracytoplasmic inclusions were visualized in an UV microscope (Leica DM1000) with 40X and 100X objectives. A sample was considered to be negative after two blind passages without intracytoplasmic inclusion detection.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>DNA extraction</title>
					<p>Vaginal exudate samples were homogenized and then 500 μl from each one were transferred to a sterile micro tube that was inactivated at 80°C for 20 min. Then, 100 μl of NET Buffer (50 mM NaCl, 125 mM EDTA, 50 mM Tris HCl, pH 7.6), and 50 μl of 24% SDS (3.4% final concentration) were added and incubated at 80°C for 10 min. Afterwards, we added RNAse at 75 μg/ml final concentration, and incubated for 2 h at 50°C, followed by proteinase K (USB, Ohio, USA) at a final concentration of 325 μg/ml and incubated at 50°C for 90 min more. Then, we added a 25:24:1 volume of phenol, chloroform and isoamilic alcohol (Sigma-Aldrich, USA), mixed for 15 min, and centrifuged at 16,060 <italic>g</italic> for 5 min at room temperature.</p>
					<p>Finally, 0.6 volumes of isopropanol were added to the supernatant and centrifuged at 16,060 <italic>g</italic> for 15 min. The resulting DNA was washed with 70% cold ethanol and centrifuged at 16,060 <italic>g</italic> for 5 min. DNA was resuspended with 25 μl of DNAase-free water.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Molecular identification</title>
					<p>Molecular identification was performed via PCR using primers that amplify a 342 bp of 16S-23S ribosomal RNA intergenic spacer. Primers were designed with the IDT SciTools Primer QuestSM program, using the <italic>C. abortus</italic> A.22 ribosomal operon sequence deposited in GenBank with accession number U68444.1 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Everett <italic>et al</italic>., 1997</xref>). PCR reactions were performed in a final volume of 50 μl, including 1X PCR buffer, 3 mM MgCl2, 400 μM dNTP´s, 25 pmol of each primer, 1 U DreamTaq Polymerase (Thermo, USA), and 50 ng DNA. <italic>C. abortus</italic> A.22 strain was used as positive control.</p>
					<p>The amplification protocol consisted of an initial denaturing cycle of 5 min at 95°C, 40 cycles at 95°C for 1 min, 63°C for 30 s, 72°C for 1 min, and a final extension at 72°C for 10 min. Amplification products were observed in a 1% agarose gel (Thermo, USA) stained with ethidium bromide (0.5 μg/ml).</p>
					<p>Samples found to be positive for <italic>C. abortus</italic> through PCR were purified using the commercial QIAquick gel extraction system, following manufacturer’s instructions. Product sequencing was performed in both directions by means of the Taq FS Dye Terminator Cycle Sequencing Fluorescence-Based Sequencing method. The consensus sequence and sequence alignment were achieved with the Vector NTI program.</p>
					<p>The sequences of 16S-23S ribosomal RNA intergenic spacer obtained in this study were subjected to BLAST searches in GenBank database. Multiple alignments were established using sequences of the genus <italic>Chlamydia</italic> available in the GenBank with Clustal W and Muscle algorithms included in MEGA software version 7.0.26 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Kumar <italic>et al</italic>., 2016 </xref>). Phylogenetic reconstruction was conducted using a Bayesian approach with MrBayes version 3.2 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Ronquist <italic>et al</italic>., 2012</xref>). The analysis was performed for 3,000,000 generations with sampling trees every 100 generations. Trees with scores lower than those at the stationary phase (‘burn-in’) were discarded, and trees that reached the stationary phase were collected and used to build majority consensus trees.</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="results">
				<title>RESULTS</title>
				<p>L929 cells were infected with clinical samples and immunofluorescence was used to visualize chlamydial inclusions. In total, inclusions were found in 43 out of 186 assessed samples (23.11%), or 18 out of 82 samples from Coahuila, 13 out of 67 from Veracruz, seven out of 25 from Jalisco, and five out of seven from Queretaro (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 1</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t2">
						<label>Table 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Overview of the obtained results from the bacteriological and PCR techniques employed on the vaginal exudates samples</title>
						</caption>
						<table>
							<colgroup>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="justify">Origin - States</th>
									<th align="justify">Samples</th>
									<th align="justify">Positive to bacterial isolation</th>
									<th align="justify">Positive to PCR</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify">Veracruz</td>
									<td align="center">67</td>
									<td align="center">13</td>
									<td align="center">2</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify">Jalisco</td>
									<td align="center">25</td>
									<td align="center">7</td>
									<td align="center">5</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify">Coahuila</td>
									<td align="center">82</td>
									<td align="center">18</td>
									<td align="center">5</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify">Queretaro</td>
									<td align="center">7</td>
									<td align="center">5</td>
									<td align="center">6</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify">Puebla</td>
									<td align="center">5</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify">Total</td>
									<td align="center">186</td>
									<td align="center">43</td>
									<td align="center">18</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify">Total percentages</td>
									<td align="center">100 %</td>
									<td align="center">23.19 %</td>
									<td align="center">9.68 %</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>PCR analysis revealed 18 of the 186 vaginal exudate DNA samples were positive for <italic>C. abortus</italic>. Across sampled regions, Querétaro had six positive samples, Coahuila and Jalisco each had five positive samples, Veracruz had two, and samples from Puebla had no positive results.</p>
				<p>We identified the amplification zone included 70 bp of the 16S ribosomal subunit, a 105 bp intergenic region, the 115 bp 5S ribosomal subunit, another 3 bp intergenic region, and the 49 bp 23S ribosomal subunit. The sequences were edited with Vector NTI program and homology search was performed in the GenBank database (BLASTn), finding a 100% identity with <italic>Chlamydia abortus</italic> EF486854, U76710, U68444, among others. The <italic>Chlamydia abortus</italic> FMVZ455365 was the only strain that presented different homology to the other strains, this due to a simple change in a C/T base at position 236, however this strain showed 100 identities with <italic>C. abortus</italic> CP031646, LS450958 and KX870501, among others. The complete sequences obtained for <italic>C. abortus</italic> were deposited in the GenBank under accession numbers: FMVZ0Y55 (MZ093042), FMVZ455376 (MZ099638), FMVZ0Y54 (MZ099636), FMVZ455365 (MZ093041), FMVZ45535 (MZ093043), FMVZ9505 (MZ099635), and FMVZ9595 (MZ099634) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f2">
						<label>Figure 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Bayesian phylogenetic tree using the 16S ribosomal RNA sequences for different species of <italic>Chlamydia</italic> genus. The numbers of the nodes indicate the values of support or posterior probability. The samples indicated with arrows are those obtained in this study</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e118-gf2.gif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="discussion">
				<title>DISCUSSION</title>
				<p>Results revealed the presence of <italic>C. abortus</italic> in goats from four of the five sampled Mexican states. In a previous study, <italic>C. abortus</italic> was isolated from goats of the state of Guanajuato that had aborted (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Mora <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>).</p>
				<p>There are different causes of infectious or non-infectious abortion in ruminants, and malnutrition during gestation appears to be the most common in extensive goat production systems. Lack of food, long distances between grazing and shelter areas, exposure to high temperatures and a shortage of drinking water are frequent grazing conditions during in the dry season that can cause stress that leads to abortion. However, given that <italic>C. abortus</italic> is always a pathogen and not part of the bacterial flora, isolating this microorganism in herds where several animals present reproductive failure can be taken as a definitive and accurate diagnosis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Mellado <italic>et al</italic>., 2004</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Urrutia <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">OIE, 2018</xref>).</p>
				<p>Isolation is the gold standard test to demonstrate the presence of <italic>C. abortus</italic>, but inconsistencies in cell culture, including death during transport, inadequate sample preservation, or contamination can lead to low sensitivity (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Thejls <italic>et al.</italic>, 1994</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><italic>Sachse et al</italic>., 2009</xref>). By complementing isolation with PCR, we found 18/186 (9.23%) positive samples. Our results are lower than those described by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Mora <italic>et al</italic>. (2015)</xref>, who reported 30/125 (24%) PCR-positive vaginal exudate samples and were able to confirm 88.23% of the positive samples obtained from isolation. In the present study, PCR only confirmed 42.8% of the positive results observed through isolation. We may have observed false negatives due to low sample bacterial load, sample cross-contamination or because other elements present in the vaginal exudate samples may have inhibited the PCR (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">OIE, 2018</xref>). Some elements normally present in clinical samples are known to sometimes affect assay sensitivity, or even prevent DNA amplification (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Schrader <italic>et al</italic>., 2012</xref>). These elements include polysaccharides, calcium, collagen, hemoglobin, sucrose and proteinases that either originate in the animal itself or its bacterial flora.</p>
				<p>In contrast, while lower than <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Mora <italic>et al</italic>. (2015)</xref>, our PCR positivity confirmation rate was higher than that reported by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Campos-Hernández <italic>et al</italic>. (2014)</xref>. In that study, which assessed 246 samples via PCR, the presence of <italic>C. abortus</italic> could only be confirmed in the spleen of an aborted fetus. Likewise, our PCR positivity results are higher than those from some European studies. A report from Italy (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Chisu <italic>et al.,</italic> 2013</xref>) used PCR to detect 3/40 (7.5%) positive samples in sheep herds with high incidence of abortions. In contrast to our study, their evaluation had fewer samples, but these came from placentas. On the other hand, a study in Germany (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Lenzko <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>) sampled 32 goat herds with abortion rates below 1%. They analyzed 352 vaginal exudates using PCR, and their results revealed that 28 animals (7.95%) were positive to <italic>C. abortus</italic>. These data indicate that <italic>Chlamydia</italic> infections occur frequently in this region even in the absence of high abortion rates, this could be due to the endemicity of the disease in the region (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Lenzko <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>).</p>
				<p>While placentas and aborted fetuses are the tissues with the highest bacterial load, and thus, the best source for bacterial isolation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Sachse <italic>et al</italic>., 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Rodolakis and Laroucau, 2015</xref>), the sampled herd husbandry conditions made it unfeasible to collect these tissues. Most of the herds in our study are kept under extensive management systems, where unsupervised goats roam many kilometers to reach communal pastures. As these field conditions make the recovery and collection of fetuses and placentas unfeasible, we sampled vaginal exudates instead. Studies from both Mexico and elsewhere have shown that vaginal exudates are adequate samples and can be widely used for diagnosis. (Papp <italic>et al.</italic>, 1994; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Jiménez-Estrada <italic>et al.</italic>, 2008</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Gutierrez <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Campos-Henández <italic>et al.</italic>, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Mora <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Laroucau <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">O' Neill <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019</xref>).</p>
				<p>Albeit it is accepted that working with tissues that have a high bacterial load favors the PCR sensitivity level (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Livingstone <italic>et al</italic>. 2009</xref>), other studies in Mexico have successfully used PCR to detect <italic>C. abortus</italic> in vaginal exudates. In 2008, a study analyzed 304 vaginal exudates from sheep with a history of abortions coming from the state of Mexico (Estado de México). This study found 0.65% positivity (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Jiménez-Estrada <italic>et al.</italic>, 2008</xref>) which is a lower positivity rate than that of our results. It is possible that husbandry practices that allow interactions between sheep and goat predispose the dissemination of <italic>Chlamydia</italic> between herds.</p>
				<p>As part of the identification of <italic>Chlamydia</italic> species involved in our study, and specifically to discard the possibility of another bacterium being responsible for abortions in goats (namely <italic>C. pecorum</italic>)<italic>,</italic> it was necessary to complement the PCR with amplified fragment sequencing.</p>
				<p>The sequences showed high identity with most of the <italic>C. abortus</italic> sequences, available in the databases. Similar result was obtained when phylogenetic analyzes were carried out, observing little variation in the clade of <italic>C. abortus</italic> FMVZ455365, which an apparently separate of <italic>C. abortus</italic> Mexican strains with posterior probability of 98 and 99%, respectively.</p>
				<p>As of 2016, chlamydiasis has been considered endemic in Mexico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">DOF, 2016</xref>). Before this, it had been considered exotic, which prevented the implementation of diagnostic techniques and control measures, which in turn favored the spread of the disease. It is possible that the consequences of <italic>Chlamydia abortus</italic> presence in Mexico are similar to those reported worldwide, and that the lack of necessary detection tools have fostered its presence in Mexico without it becoming evident (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Sachse <italic>et al</italic>., 2009</xref>). Furthermore, analysis of both sheep and goat studies may show that the bacterium has become disseminated throughout the country, but not at the same proportion in different regions. Indeed, positive serology results from areas in Mexico with important goat populations (distributed through the North, Center, West, and East of the country) seem to show that the lack of routine diagnosis before animal transporting has fostered disease spread, and concomitant sanitary and socioeconomic risks (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Mora <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Campos-Henández <italic>et al.</italic>, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Jiménez-Estrada <italic>et al.</italic>, 2008</xref> ).</p>
				<p>The goal of our study was to determine <italic>Chlamydia</italic> spp. presence in some important goat producing regions in Mexico. While the type of sampling we used did not allow us to measure disease prevalence, our results showed that <italic>Chlamydia abortus</italic> was isolated in 23% of the goats that had endured abortions. This is evidence that <italic>C. abortus</italic> is an important pathogen that requires attention as well as the implementation of control measures, both in goats and other productive species in which we have evidence of the disease. Recent serological studies in Mexican dairy cows with abortions and reproductive disorders showed that out of a total 833 analyzed samples, 90 (10.8%) tested positive for <italic>C. abortus.</italic> In the state of Guanajuato, 6% (15/237) of animals tested seropositive and 18.5% (15/81) of the sampled herds have at least one seropositive animal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Limón <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>). A serological study performed in sheep herds between 2011 and 2013, analyzed 5,321 ewe blood samples from 209 production units in 61 municipalities across seven states in Mexico, and found positivity rates between 24% and 67% (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Palomares <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020</xref>). It is necessary to carry out further research on both prevalence and distribution of <italic>C. abortus</italic> to better understand its impact on goats and production in Mexico. Pertinent measures to control and prevent <italic>C. abortus</italic> transmission between animals also need to be implemented in order to avert human infection. Furthermore, special attention needs to be paid in regard to education and disease risk awareness for people working directly with animals as well as in microbiology laboratories, given that human cases of <italic>C. abortus</italic> infections stem from exposure to infected sheep, goats, aerosols, and contaminated materials (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Longbottom and Coulter, 2003</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Ortega <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Pichon <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>).</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>CONCLUSION</title>
				<p>The present study confirms that <italic>Chlamydia abortus</italic> is found in Mexican goats who have had abortions, in the states of Coahuila, Jalisco, Queretaro, and Veracruz. Furthermore, that <italic>Chlamydia abortus</italic> is the etiologic agent of chlamydiosis, which supports and confirms the presence of chlamydiosis in Mexico. It is of the utmost importance to study the distribution of this bacterium across Mexico, in order to implement prevention and control measures to avoid spread of disease, as well as to diminish the risk of human infection.</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Conflict of interest statement</title>
					<p>The authors have nothing to disclose.</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
		</body>
	</sub-article>
</article>