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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">av</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>Abanico veterinario</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Abanico vet</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">2007-428X</issn>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2448-6132</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sergio Martínez González</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.21929/abavet2021.21</article-id>
				<article-id pub-id-type="other">00403</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Nota Corta</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Seroprevalencia de <italic>Mycobacterium avium</italic> subespecie <italic>paratuberculosis</italic> en bovinos sospechosos sacrificados en rastro de Sonora, México</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6539-7828</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Osuna-Chávez</surname>
						<given-names>Reyna</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3092-6261</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>López-Robles</surname>
						<given-names>Guadalupe</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3814-3894</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Celaya-Michel</surname>
						<given-names>Hernán</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2842-3123</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Sosa-Castañeda</surname>
						<given-names>Jesús</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0256-637X</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Nieblas-López</surname>
						<given-names>Manuel</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0672-7991</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Ibarra-Zazueta</surname>
						<given-names>Cristina</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"><sup>*</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff1">
					<label>1</label>
					<institution content-type="original">Departamento de Agricultura y Ganadería, Universidad de Sonora. México. </institution>
					<institution content-type="normalized">Universidad de Sonora</institution>
					<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Departamento de Agricultura y Ganadería</institution>
					<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad de Sonora. México</institution>
					<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1">
					<label>*</label>Autor responsable y de correspondencia: Ibarra-Zazueta Cristina. Departamento de Agricultura y Ganadería, Universidad de Sonora. Carretera Bahía de Kino Km 21. Apartado postal 305. Hermosillo, Sonora, México. <email>reyna.osuna@unison.mx</email>, <email>guadalupe.lopez@unison.mx</email>, <email>hernan.celaya@unison.mx</email>, <email>jesus.sosa@unison.mx</email>, <email>manuel.nieblas@unison.mx</email>, <email>cristina.ibarra@unison.mx</email>.</corresp>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>31</day>
				<month>10</month>
				<year>2021</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<season>Jan-Dec</season>
				<year>2021</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>11</volume>
			
			<elocation-id>403</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>26</day>
					<month>01</month>
					<year>2021</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>20</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2021</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
					<license-p>Este es un artículo publicado en acceso abierto bajo una licencia Creative Commons</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>RESUMEN:</title>
				<p>La paratuberculosis en una enfermedad infecto-contagiosa causada por la bacteria <italic>Mycobacterium avium</italic> subespecie <italic>paratuberculosis</italic> (MAP)<italic>,</italic> y afecta al aparato digestivo de los rumiantes. MAP es de distribución mundial, sin embargo, no hay publicaciones de la seroprevalencia en bovinos de esta enfermedad en el estado de Sonora. Por lo anterior, el objetivo de este trabajo fue detectar la seropositividad a MAP en ganado bovino de Sonora, así como conocer su prevalencia aparente en una población de bovinos adultos con emaciación y caquexia. Se analizaron 385 muestras de suero de bovinos, 370 de hembras y 15 de machos, mayores de 3 años, nacidos en la entidad con signos de emaciación y caquexia. Se recopilaron datos sobre edad, raza, fin zootécnico y municipio de origen. La finalidad zootécnica de los animales fue en su mayoría bovinos de doble propósito con 84.93% (370/385). Las muestras procesaron mediante la prueba comercial ELISA. Los resultados muestran una seroprevalencia aparente de 2.08% (8/385) y los municipios que presentaron animales seropositivos fueron Hermosillo con 3 muestras, así como, Guaymas, Huachinera, Ures, Villa Pesqueira y Fronteras, con una muestra cada uno. El presente estudio demuestra por primera vez la seropositividad a <italic>Mycobacterium avium</italic> subespecie <italic>paratuberculosis</italic> en ganado bovino de Sonora. Además de una baja seroprevalencia aparente en la población de bovinos muestreada. La presencia de MAP en Sonora, la cual podría ser considerada como una enfermedad olvidada, pone en evidencia la necesidad de conocer su posible rol en la salud pública de México.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
				<title>Palabras clave:</title>
				<kwd>Seroprevalencia</kwd>
				<kwd>Mycobacterium avium subspecie paratuberculosis</kwd>
				<kwd>Sonora</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="4"/>
				<table-count count="2"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="32"/>
				<page-count count="1"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>INTRODUCCIÓN</title>
			<p>La paratuberculosis (PTBC) o enfermedad de Johne, es una enfermedad crónica y contagiosa causada por la bacteria <italic>Mycobacterium avium,</italic> subespecie <italic>paratuberculosis</italic> (MAP). En el acuerdo mediante el cual se dan a conocer en los Estados Unidos Mexicanos las enfermedades y plagas exóticas y endémicas de notificación obligatoria de los animales terrestres y acuáticos del Diario Oficial de la Federación, publicado en noviembre del 2018, la PTBC se encuentra catalogada dentro del grupo 3 de enfermedades y plagas, las cuales están constituidas por aquellas que se encuentran en territorio nacional, consideradas como endémicas, que representan un menor riesgo desde el punto de vista epidemiológico, económico, de salud púbica y para el comercio nacional e internacional; ya que pueden ser controlables y son de notificación mensual obligatoria (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">DOF, 2018</xref>). La infección por MAP, afecta a bovinos, ovinos y caprinos; principalmente de producción lechera (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Retamal <italic>et al.,</italic> 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">OIE, 2020</xref>). Causa lesiones granulomatosas en aparato digestivo y se caracteriza por causar enteritis granulomatosa proliferativa y linfadenitis con infiltración mononuclear, lo que provoca síndrome de mala absorción a los animales infectados, afectando el desempeño productivo de los animales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Rathanaiah <italic>et al.,</italic> 2017</xref>). Uno de los principales mecanismos de infección se da en los terneros, cuando se infectan durante la lactancia por medio de infestación oral-fecal; aunque no se descarta que pudieran contagiarse en la etapa de estabulación.</p>
			<p>El periodo de incubación de MAP oscila entre 4 meses a 15 años, y los signos clínicos pueden aparecer entre los dos y los cinco años (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Eisenber <italic>et al.,</italic> 2012</xref>). Debido a las similitudes fisiopatológicas entre la PTBC en rumiantes y la enfermedad de Crohn en humanos, se ha sugerido que se pudiera tratar de una enfermedad zoonótica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Naser <italic>et al., 2004</italic></xref>); sin embargo, hasta el momento no se ha podido demostrar la relación directa entre la infección por MAP y la enfermedad de Crohn en humanos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Chaubey <italic>et al.,</italic> 2017</xref>). Se ha realizado PCR del gen IS900 y la prevalencia real de MAP en pacientes afectados por enfermedad de Crohn y la enfermedad intestinal no inflamatoria fue de 47 y 13 % respectivamente; sólo el 7 % de los pacientes con la enfermedad de Crohn fueron moderadamente positivos a la tinción Zielh Nelseen. En los hallazgos en histopatología se observó enteritis granulomatosa (83 y 90 %), enteritis linfoplasmocítica (17 y 14 %), edema y linfagiectasia (67 y 96 %) y vasculitis (20 y 73 %), para enfermedad de Crohn y MAP, respectivamente (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Zarei <italic>et al.,</italic> 2019</xref>).</p>
			<p>El diagnóstico de la PTB puede ser por medio de pruebas de ELISA, PCR, aislamiento bacteriano, fijación de complemento, inmunodifusión en gel de agar; así como tinción de Ziehl Neelsen en muestras de histopatología y heces; también se puede realizar por medio de la detección de inmunidad mediada por células (prueba de piel ano caudal); sin embargo presenta reacción cruzada con <italic>Mycobacterium bovis</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Whittington <italic>et al.,</italic> 2019</xref>). La PTBC se encuentra distribuida a nivel mundial, en una encuesta realizada a 48 países se encontró que la PTBC es muy común, en aproximadamente la mitad de estos países, más del 20% de los rebaños estaban infectados por MAP (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Whittington <italic>et al.,</italic> 2019</xref>). Se ha demostrado que sólo Suecia, Noruega y algunos estados de Australia se encuentran libres de la enfermedad, porque en estos lugares realizan informes válidos y medidas de control de MAP, y porque el objetivo es la erradicación de la enfermedad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Collins <italic>et al.,</italic>2010</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Eslami <italic>et al</italic> 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Whittington <italic>et al.,</italic> 2019</xref>). La PTBC presenta una prevalencia en los bovinos a nivel mundial entre 7 a 60 %, siendo menor en ganado de carne que en ganado lechero; además, se ha calculado que en ovinos es del 16 % en América Latina y el Caribe (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Fernández <italic>et al.,</italic> 2014</xref>).</p>
			<p>En México, la información que se tiene sobre seroprevalencia de MAP en bovinos es escasa, los estudios realizados han sido principalmente en ganado ovino y caprino. En ovinos de San Luis Potosí se detectó una seropositividad de 9.48% (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Morón <italic>et al.,</italic> 2013</xref>); mientras que en Jalisco, Guanajuato y el estado de México fue de 44.6% (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Jaimes <italic>et al.,</italic> 2008</xref>), en Nayarit 5.16% (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Mejía <italic>et al.,</italic> 2017</xref>), en Baja California 7.8% (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Correa <italic>et al.,</italic> 2013</xref>). En Sonora se reportó una seroprevalencia general para ovinos del 7.48% y al analizarlo por regiones, la mayor seropositividad fue observada en el sur del estado con 11.10% (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Morales <italic>et al.,</italic> 2020</xref>). En otros estudios de México se ha reportado la presencia de MAP en caprinos, en Veracruz se detectó una seropositividad del 0.6% (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Martínez <italic>et al.,</italic> 2012</xref>), en la parte central de México de 8.29-9.67% (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Favila <italic>et al.,</italic> 2010</xref>) y en Puebla se encontró una seroprevalencia del 48.1% (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Gallaga <italic>et al.,</italic> 2017</xref>). En el estudio realizado por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Morales <italic>et al.</italic> (2020)</xref>, se analizaron los factores de riesgo para la presentación de seropositividad a MAP en ovinos de Sonora y se encontró que el riesgo fue mayor cuando los animales nacieron fuera de la explotación y también en explotaciones con más de 300 animales. Aunque en bovinos la información sobre MAP es limitada, se ha observado que existe una seroprevalencia del 8.29-9.67% en el área central de México (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Favila <italic>et al.,</italic> 2010</xref>).</p>
			<p>En un estudio realizado por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Milián <italic>et al.</italic> (2015)</xref>, donde analizaron la seroprevalencia de MAP en bovinos de diferentes estados de México, se detectó una seroprevalencia de 5% para el país; y los estados que mostraron mayor seroprevalencia fueron Jalisco y Guanajuato, con 11% y 10%, respectivamente. En este mismo estudio también se incluyeron los estados de Chihuahua y Sinaloa, los cuales colindan con Sonora y se detectó una seroprevalencia de MAP de 2% y 6%, respectivamente. Lamentablemente no existe información disponible sobre la situación actual de MAP en bovinos de Sonora, pero la presencia de la enfermedad en ovinos de este estado; así como en ovinos y bovinos de estados colindantes, sugieren que la enfermedad podría estar circulando en el ganado bovino del estado de Sonora.</p>
			<p>El objetivo de este trabajo fue detectar la presencia de seropositividad a <italic>Mycobacterium avium</italic> subespecie <italic>paratuberculosis</italic> en ganado bovino de diferentes municipios de Sonora, así como conocer cuál sería su prevalencia aparente en una población de bovinos clínicamente sospechosos (con emaciación y caquexia) y mayores de 3 años.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="materials|methods">
			<title>MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS</title>
			<sec>
				<title>Diseño del estudio, tamaño de la muestra y colecta.</title>
				<p>Se realizó un estudio epidemiológico observacional transversal entre mayo de 2018 y mayo de 2019; el tamaño de la muestra (n=385), se determinó con la metodología descrita por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Segura y Hondhold (2015)</xref>; para esto se consideró la población total de 1,728,001 bovinos del estado de Sonora: 1,709,366 de producción de carne y 18,635 de leche (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">SIAP, 2018</xref>), con un nivel de confianza del 95 %, un error estimado del 5 % y una prevalencia esperada del 5 %. Se realizó un muestreo no probabilístico por conveniencia. Los animales se seleccionaron de un rastro TIF de la ciudad de Hermosillo, que recibe bovinos de todo el estado de Sonora. Como criterio de inclusión se consideró que los animales tuvieran arete SINIIGA y marca de herrar que los identificara como procedentes de Sonora, que fueran mayores de 3 años y que mostraran signos de emaciación y caquexia. El criterio de exclusión fue que no se colectarían muestras de animales menores de 3 años y con condición corporal de 3-5. Además, se recopilaron datos sobre la finalidad zootécnica de los animales, edad, sexo y municipio al que pertenecían. Para clasificar las muestras de acuerdo con la situación geográfica de donde provenían los animales, se utilizó el Sistema Estatal de Información para el Ordenamiento Territorial del Estado de Sonora (SEIOT), que agrupa a diferentes municipios en unidades territoriales, que se muestran en la <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">figura 1</xref> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">SEIOT, 2020</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f1">
						<label>Figura 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Unidades Territoriales Estado de Sonora muestreados (SEIOT, 2020)</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e403-gf1.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Obtención y procesamiento de las muestras.</title>
				<p>Se colectaron muestras de sangre de la vena yugular de cada animal en tubos de 10 mL sin anticoagulante (Vaccutainer®); el procedimiento se realizó de acuerdo con la NOM- 062-ZOO-1999. La detección de anticuerpos anti-MAP se realizó a través de la técnica de ELISA indirecta (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Jark <italic>et al.,</italic>1997</xref>), con un estuche comercial (IDEXX Laboratories, Inc., EUA), y se realizaron de acuerdo con las instrucciones del fabricante. La medición se realizó en un lector de ELISA (Stat Fax ®4700), a una absorbancia de 450 nm. Se consideraron positivas las muestras con un S/P &gt; 55 %, dudosas de 45 a 55 % y negativo &lt; 45 %.</p>
				<p>Análisis de datos. Para conocer la seroprevalencia aparente de MAP en la población de bovinos analizada (adultos con emaciación y caquexia), se consideraron los animales positivos a MAP por la prueba de ELISA y se dividieron entre el número total de la población muestreada.</p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="results|discussion">
			<title>RESULTADOS Y DISCUSIÓN</title>
			<p>Se muestrearon 96.10 % (370/385) hembras y 3.90 % (15/385) machos. Se encontró que el 3.90 % (15/385) de los animales muestreados fueron bovinos productores de carne, el 84.93 % (327/385) doble propósito (producción de carne y leche) y el 11.17 % (43/385); la finalidad zootécnica fue la producción de leche. El promedio de edad de los animales seropositivos a MAP fue de 7.5 ± 2 años, lo cual, de acuerdo con la literatura e infección por MAP, usualmente ocurre en los primeros meses de vida de los animales, en la etapa de lactancia por leche contaminada con heces, pero los signos clínicos se observan después de un largo periodo de incubación y generalmente aparecen entre los dos y los cinco años (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Craven <italic>et al.,</italic> 2000</xref>). Los animales muestreados en este estudio fueron principalmente bovinos de desecho; además presentaron los signos característicos de PTBC que son emaciación y caquexia. Aunque el diagnóstico presuntivo de la enfermedad puede realizarse con base en los signos clínicos y los hallazgos a la necropsia, existen otras enfermedades que tienen las mismas manifestaciones clínicas; debido a ésto, se requiere la confirmación de laboratorio y pruebas serológicas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Bustamante <italic>et al.,</italic> 2011</xref>).</p>
			<p>Se obtuvieron muestras serológicas de ganado bovino de 55 de los 72 municipios del estado de Sonora (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">tabla 1</xref>), lo que corresponde a un 76.39 % del territorio estatal; dichos municipios se encuentran en la parte centro norte del estado (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">fig. 1</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t1">
					<label>Tabla 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Municipios del estado de Sonora evaluados en el estudio</title>
					</caption>
					<table>
						<colgroup>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
						</colgroup>
						<thead>
							<tr>
								<th align="center">Unidad Territorial Básica</th>
								<th align="center">No. De Animales</th>
								<th align="center">Municipios que se incluyen </th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody>
							<tr>
								<td align="center">Hermosillo</td>
								<td align="center">175</td>
								<td align="center">Hermosillo, San Miguel de Horcasticas, La Colorada, San Javier, Carbo </td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="center">Guaymas </td>
								<td align="center">13</td>
								<td align="center">Guaymas, Emplame</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="center">Cajeme</td>
								<td align="center">12</td>
								<td align="center">Cajeme , Suaqui Grande, Rosario, Quiriego, San Ignacio Rio Muerto, Bacum</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="center">San Luis Rio Colorado</td>
								<td align="center">2</td>
								<td align="center">San Luis Rio Colorado, Puerto Peñasco , Gral. Plutarco Elías Calles</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="center">Caborca</td>
								<td align="center">16</td>
								<td align="center">Caborca, Pitiquito, Saric, Áltar, Tubatama, Átil, Oquitoa</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="center">Nogales</td>
								<td align="center">23</td>
								<td align="center">Nogales, Santa Cruz, Ímuris, Magdalena, Santa Ana, Benjamin Hill, Trincheras, Curcúpe</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="center">Agua Prieta</td>
								<td align="center">11</td>
								<td align="center">Agua Prieta, Fronteras, Nacori Chico, Bacadehuachi, Huasabas, Granados, Divisaderos, Cumpas, Bavispe, Villa Hidalgo, Tepache </td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="center">Moctezuma</td>
								<td align="center">49</td>
								<td align="center">Moctezuma, Bacerac, Huachinera, Nacori Chico,Bacadehuachi, Huasabas, Granados, Divisaderos, Cumpas, Bavispe, Villa Hidalgo , Tepache</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="center">Banámichi</td>
								<td align="center">8</td>
								<td align="center">Arizpe, Banamichi, Huepac, Aconchi, Bavicora, San Felipe de Jesús</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="center">Sahuaripa</td>
								<td align="center">24</td>
								<td align="center">Sahuaripa, Arivechi, Yecora, Bacanora, Soyopa, Onavas</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="center">Ures</td>
								<td align="center">49</td>
								<td align="center">Ures, Opodepe,Rayón, Villa Pesquera, Mazat lán, San Pedro de la Cueva </td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="center">Navojoa</td>
								<td align="center">3</td>
								<td align="center">Álamos, Etchojoa, Navojoa, Benito Juárez, Huatabampo</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p>El municipio con mayor número de muestras fue Hermosillo con un 45.45 % (175/385). En el análisis serológico para la detección de anticuerpos anti-MAP, se observó que los municipios donde se detectaron muestras dudosas fueron: Hermosillo (n = 3), Guaymas (n = 1), Huachinera (n = 1), Ures (n = 1), Villa Pesqueira (n = 1) y Fronteras (n = 1) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">fig. 2</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f2">
					<label>Figura 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Unidades territoriales con muestras positivas a MAP</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e403-gf2.gif"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>Existen diversos estudios de seroprevalecia de la enfermedad, en donde a las muestras que presentan resultados dudosos se les considera positivas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Velez <italic>et al.,</italic> 2016</xref>;  <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Jaramillo<italic>et al.,</italic> 2017</xref>). La seroprevalencia aparente estimada para el estado fue de 2.08 % (8/385); estos resultados coinciden con lo detectado en Chihuahua por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Milián <italic>et al.</italic> (2015)</xref>. Es sugestivo observar que, aunque Sonora también colinda con Sinaloa y Baja California, donde se detectaron seroprevalencias más altas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Milián <italic>et al.,</italic> 2015</xref>), la introducción de ganado al estado se encuentra prohibida por su elevado estatus sanitario; esto es debido a que Sonora se encuentra en etapa de erradicación de <italic>Mycobacterium bovis</italic> (Tuberculosis bovina). Dentro de las pruebas oficiales para el diagnóstico de tuberculosis bovina en México, se utiliza la prueba de tuberculinización; las cuales se consideran la prueba de pliegue ano caudal, cervical comparada y cervical simple. Esta prueba es altamente sensible y presenta baja especificidad, y la prueba de pliegue ano caudal es ideal para identificar poblaciones reactoras a las micobacterias; por lo que para discriminar a quien pudiera corresponder esta reacción se utiliza la doble cervical comparada (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">NOM-031-ZOO-1995</xref>).</p>
			<p>Existen similitudes inmunogénicas de MAP con <italic>Mycobacterium bovis,</italic> y dado a que se hizo un barrido con la prueba de tuberculina mediante el Plan Estratégico conjunto entre Estados Unidos - México para la colaboración en Tuberculosis bovina 2013-2018, y a que el estado de Sonora tiene avance como acreditado modificado avanzado para el USDA (Departamento de Agricultura de los Estados Unidos); la estrategia estatal se basa en la eliminación de reactores y despoblación de hatos positivos a pruebas de histopatología y aislamiento bacteriano (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">SENASICA, 2021</xref>). Esto ha permitido un gran avance en la campaña de tuberculosis bovina y de manera indirecta minimizar la presencia de MAP en los bovinos de la entidad; sin embargo, existe la evidencia de seropositividad para MAP en ovinos del estado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Morales <italic>et al.,</italic> 2020</xref>); esto incrementa la posibilidad de haya la presencia de anticuerpos circulantes de MAP en la entidad y que en algún momento los bovinos tengan contacto con la enfermedad.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>CONCLUSIONES</title>
			<p>Los resultados obtenidos en el presente estudio demuestran por primera vez la seropositividad a <italic>Mycobacterium avium</italic> subespecie <italic>paratuberculosis</italic> en ganado bovino de Sonora. Además, se observó una baja seroprevalencia aparente en la población de bovinos muestreada. Sin embargo, para tener información más precisa sobre el comportamiento epidemiológico de este agente etiológico en la población de ganado bovino de Sonora, es necesario que a futuro se realicen más análisis en animales productivamente activos dentro de las unidades de producción. Por otro lado, la presencia de MAP en Sonora, la cual es una enfermedad olvidada, pone en evidencia la necesidad de conocer su posible rol en la salud pública de México.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
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				<label>1</label>
				<p>Clave: e2021-8.</p>
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	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="en">
		<front-stub>
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				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Short communication</subject>
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				<article-title>Seroprevalence of <italic>Mycobacterium avium</italic> subspecie paratuberculosis in suspect cattle slaughtered at slaughterhouse from Sonora, Mexico</article-title>
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			<abstract>
				<title>ABSTRACT:</title>
				<p>Paratuberculosis is an infectious-contagious disease caused by the bacterium <italic>Mycobacterium avium</italic> subspecie <italic>paratuberculosis</italic> (MAP), which affects the digestive tract of ruminants. MAP is distributed worldwide; however, there are no publications on the seroprevalence of this disease in cattle in Sonora State. Therefore, the objective of this study was to detect MAP seropositivity in cattle in Sonora, as well as to know its apparent prevalence in a population of adult cattle with emaciation and cachexia. Three hundred and eighty-five serum samples were analyzed from 370 female and 15 male cattle, older than 3 years, born in the state with signs of emaciation and cachexia. Data were collected on age, breed, zootechnical purpose and municipality of origin. The zootechnical purpose of the animals was mostly dual-purpose cattle with 84.93% (370/385). The samples were processed using the commercial ELISA test. The results show an apparent seroprevalence of 2.08% (8/385) and municipalities that presented seropositive animals were Hermosillo with 3 samples, as well as Guaymas, Huachinera, Ures, Villa Pesqueira and Fronteras, with one sample each. The present study demonstrates for the first time seropositivity to <italic>Mycobacterium avium</italic> subspecies <italic>paratuberculosis</italic> in cattle in Sonora. In addition to a low apparent seroprevalence in the cattle population sampled. The presence of MAP in Sonora, which could be considered a neglected disease, highlights the need to know its possible role in public health in Mexico.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords:</title>
				<kwd>Seroprevalence</kwd>
				<kwd>Mycobacterium avium subspecie paratuberculosis</kwd>
				<kwd>Sonora</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>INTRODUCTION</title>
				<p>Paratuberculosis (PTBC) or Johne's disease is a chronic and contagious disease caused by the bacterium <italic>Mycobacterium avium</italic>, subspecies <italic>paratuberculosis</italic> (MAP). In the agreement through which the exotic and endemic diseases and pests of compulsory notification of terrestrial and aquatic animals in the United Mexican States are made known in the Official Gazette of the Federation that was published in November 2018. PTBC is cataloged within group 3 of diseases and pests, which are constituted by those found in national territory, considered endemic, which represent a lower risk from the epidemiological, economic, public health point of view and for national and international trade; since they can be controllable and they are of obligatory monthly notification (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">DOF, 2018</xref>). MAP infection affects cattle, sheep and goats, mainly dairy cattle (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Retamal <italic>et al.,</italic> 2011;</xref>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">OIE, 2020</xref>). It causes granulomatous lesions in the digestive tract and it is characterized by causing proliferative granulomatous enteritis and lymphadenitis with mononuclear infiltration, which causes malabsorption syndrome in infected animals, affecting the productive performance of the animals (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Rathanaiah <italic>et al.,</italic> 2017</xref>). One of the main mechanisms of infection occurs in calves, when they were infected during lactation through oral-fecal infestation; although it is not ruled out that they could become infected in the stabling stage.</p>
				<p>The incubation period of MAP ranges from 4 months to 15 years, and clinical signs may appear between two and five years of age (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Eisenber <italic>et al.,</italic> 2012</xref>). Due to the pathophysiological similarities between PTBC in ruminants and Crohn's disease in humans, it has been suggested that it could be a zoonotic disease (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Naser <italic>et al.,</italic> 2004</xref>); however, a direct link between MAP infection and Crohn's disease in humans has so far not been demonstrated (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Chaubey <italic>et al.,</italic> 2017</xref>). PCR of the IS900 gene has been performed and the actual prevalence of MAP in patients affected by Crohn's disease and non-inflammatory bowel disease was 47 and 13 % respectively; only 7 % of patients with Crohn's disease were moderately positive to Zielh Nelseen staining. Histopathology findings showed granulomatous enteritis (83 and 90 %), lymphoplasmacytic enteritis (17 and 14 %), edema and lymphangiectasia (67 and 96 %) and vasculitis (20 and 73 %), for Crohn's disease and MAP, respectively (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Zarei <italic>et al.,</italic> 2019</xref>).</p>
				<p>Diagnosis of PTB can be by ELISA, PCR, bacterial isolation, complement fixation, agar gel immunodiffusion; as well as Ziehl Neelsen staining of histopathology and stool samples; it can also be performed by detection of cell-mediated immunity (anus caudal skin test); however it cross-reacts with <italic>Mycobacterium bovis</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Whittington <italic>et al.,</italic> 2019</xref>).</p>
				<p>PTBC is distributed worldwide, in a survey of 48 countries it was found that PTBC is very common, in about half of these countries; more than 20% of herds were infected with MAP (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Whittington <italic>et al.,</italic> 2019</xref>). Only Sweden, Norway and some states in Australia have been shown to be free of the disease, because valid reporting and control measures for MAP are carried out in these places, and because the goal is eradication of the disease (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Collins et al., 2010</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Eslami <italic>et al</italic> 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Whittington <italic>et al.,</italic> 2019</xref>). PTBC presents a prevalence in cattle worldwide between 7 to 60 %, being lower in beef cattle than in dairy cattle; in addition, it has been estimated that in sheep it is 16 % in Latin America and the Caribbean (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Fernández <italic>et al.,</italic> 2014</xref>).</p>
				<p>In Mexico, the information available on MAP seroprevalence in cattle is scarce; the studies carried out have been mainly in sheep and goats. In sheep in San Luis Potosí a seropositivity of 9.48% was detected (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Morón <italic>et al.,</italic> 2013</xref>); while in Jalisco, Guanajuato and the state of Mexico it was 44.6% (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Jaimes <italic>et al.,</italic> 2008</xref>), in Nayarit 5.16% (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Mejía <italic>et al.,</italic> 2017</xref>), in Baja California 7.8% (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Correa <italic>et al.,</italic> 2013</xref>). In Sonora, an overall seroprevalence for sheep of 7.48% was reported and when analyzed by region, the highest seropositivity was observed in the south of the state with 11.10% (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Morales <italic>et al.,</italic> 2020</xref>). Other studies in Mexico have reported the presence of MAP in goats, in Veracruz a seropositivity of 0.6% was detected (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Martínez <italic>et al.,</italic> 2012</xref>), in the central part of Mexico of 8.29-9.67% (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Favila <italic>et al.,</italic> 2010</xref>) and in Puebla a seroprevalence of 48.1% was found (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Gallaga <italic>et al.,</italic> 2017</xref>). In the study conducted by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Morales <italic>et al.</italic> (2020)</xref>, risk factors for the presentation of seropositivity to MAP in sheep in Sonora were analyzed and it was found that the risk was higher when the animals were born outside the farm and in farms with more than 300 animals. Although information on MAP in cattle is limited, a seroprevalence of 8.29-9.67% has been observed in central Mexico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Favila <italic>et al.,</italic> 2010</xref>).</p>
				<p>In a study conducted by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Milián <italic>et al.</italic> (2015)</xref>, where they analyzed the seroprevalence of MAP in cattle from different Mexican states, a seroprevalence of 5% was detected for the country; and states that showed the highest seroprevalence were Jalisco and Guanajuato, with 11% and 10%, respectively. This same study also included Chihuahua and Sinaloa states, which border Sonora, and detected a MAP seroprevalence of 2% and 6%, respectively. Unfortunately, there is no information available on the current situation of MAP in cattle in Sonora, but the presence of the disease in sheep from this state, as well as in sheep and cattle from neighboring states, suggests that the disease could be circulating in cattle in Sonora stat.</p>
				<p>The objective of this work was to detect the presence of seropositivity to <italic>Mycobacterium avium</italic> subspecies <italic>paratuberculosis</italic> in cattle from different Sonora municipalities, as well as to know the apparent prevalence in a population of clinically suspect cattle (with emaciation and cachexia) and older than 3 years of age.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="materials|methods">
				<title>MATERIAL AND METHODS</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Study design, sample size and collection.</title>
					<p>A transversal observational epidemiological study was conducted between May 2018 and May 2019. The sample size (n=385), was determined with the methodology described by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Segura and Hondhold (2015)</xref>; for this, the total population of 1,728,001 cattle in Sonora state was considered: 1,709,366 beef and 18,635 dairy cattle (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">SIAP, 2018</xref>), with a confidence level of 95 %, an estimated error of 5 % and an expected prevalence of 5 %. Non-probabilistic convenience sampling was performed. The animals were selected from a TIF slaughterhouse in Hermosillo city, which receives cattle from all over the state of Sonora. Inclusion criteria were that the animals had a SINIIGA ear tag and a shoe brand that identified them as coming from Sonora, that they were older than 3 years, and that they showed signs of emaciation and cachexia. The exclusion criterion was that samples would not be collected from animals under 3 years of age and with body condition 3-5. In addition, data were collected on the zootechnical purpose of animals, age, sex and municipality to which they belonged. To classify the samples according to the geographic location from which the animals came, it was used the State Information System for Land Management of Sonora State (SEIOT), which groups different municipalities into territorial units, shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 1</xref> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">SEIOT, 2020</xref>).</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f3">
							<label>Figure 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Sonora State Territorial Units sampled (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">SEIOT, 2020</xref>)</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e403-gf3.gif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Sample collection and processing</title>
					<p>Blood samples were collected from the jugular vein of each animal in 10 mL tubes without anticoagulant (Vaccutainer®); the procedure was performed according to <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">NOM-062-ZOO-1999</xref>. The detection of anti-MAP antibodies was performed using the indirect ELISA technique (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Jark <italic>et al.,</italic>1997</xref>), with a commercial kit (IDEXX Laboratories, Inc., USA), and were performed according to the manufacturer's instructions. The measurement was performed in an ELISA reader (Stat Fax®4700), at an absorbance of 450 nm. Samples with an S/P &gt; 55%, doubtful from 45 to 55 % and negative &lt; 45 % were considered positive.</p>
					<p>Data analysis. To determine the apparent seroprevalence of MAP in the cattle population tested (emaciation and wasting and emaciation adults), the animals positive for MAP by ELISA were considered and divided by the total number of the population sampled.</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="results|discussion">
				<title>RESULTS AND DISCUSSION</title>
				<p>A total of 96.10 % (370/385) females and 3.90 % (15/385) males were sampled. It was found that 3.90 % (15/385) of the animals sampled were beef cattle, 84.93 % (327/385) dual purpose (meat and milk production) and 11.17 % (43/385); the zootechnical purpose was milk production. The average age of MAP seropositive animals was 7.5 ± 2 years, according to the literature and MAP infection usually occurs in the first months of life of animals, in the lactation stage by milk contaminated with feces, but clinical signs are observed after a long incubation period and generally appear between two and five years (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Craven <italic>et al.,</italic> 2000</xref>). The animals sampled in this study were mainly cull cattle; they also presented the characteristic signs of PTBC, which are emaciation and cachexia. Although the presumptive diagnosis of the disease can be made based on clinical signs and necropsy findings, there are other diseases that have the same clinical manifestations; therefore, laboratory confirmation and serological tests are required (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Bustamante <italic>et al.,</italic> 2011</xref>).</p>
				<p>Serological samples were obtained from cattle from 55 of the 72 municipalities in Sonora state (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 1</xref>), which corresponds to 76.39 % of the state territory; these municipalities are located in the north-central part of the state (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Fig. 1</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t2">
						<label>Table 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Municipalities of Sonora State evaluated in the study</title>
						</caption>
						<table>
							<colgroup>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="center">Basic Territorial Unit</th>
									<th align="center">No. of animals</th>
									<th align="center">Municipalities included </th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Hermosillo</td>
									<td align="center">175</td>
									<td align="center">Hermosillo, San Miguel de Horcasticas, La Colorada, San Javier, Carbo </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Guaymas </td>
									<td align="center">13</td>
									<td align="center">Guaymas, Emplame</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Cajeme</td>
									<td align="center">12</td>
									<td align="center">Cajeme , Suaqui Grande, Rosario, Quiriego, San Ignacio Rio Muerto, Bacum</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">San Luis Rio Colorado</td>
									<td align="center">2</td>
									<td align="center">San Luis Rio Colorado, Puerto Peñasco , Gral. Plutarco Elías Calles</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Caborca</td>
									<td align="center">16</td>
									<td align="center">Caborca, Pitiquito, Saric, Áltar, Tubatama, Átil, Oquitoa</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Nogales</td>
									<td align="center">23</td>
									<td align="center">Nogales, Santa Cruz, Ímuris, Magdalena, Santa Ana, Benjamin Hill, Trincheras, Curcúpe</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Agua Prieta</td>
									<td align="center">11</td>
									<td align="center">Agua Prieta, Fronteras, Nacori Chico, Bacadehuachi, Huasabas, Granados, Divisaderos, Cumpas, Bavispe, Villa Hidalgo, Tepache </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Moctezuma</td>
									<td align="center">49</td>
									<td align="center">Moctezuma, Bacerac, Huachinera, Nacori Chico,Bacadehuachi, Huasabas, Granados, Divisaderos, Cumpas, Bavispe, Villa Hidalgo , Tepache</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Banámichi</td>
									<td align="center">8</td>
									<td align="center">Arizpe, Banamichi, Huepac, Aconchi, Bavicora, San Felipe de Jesús</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Sahuaripa</td>
									<td align="center">24</td>
									<td align="center">Sahuaripa, Arivechi, Yecora, Bacanora, Soyopa, Onavas</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Ures</td>
									<td align="center">49</td>
									<td align="center">Ures, Opodepe,Rayón, Villa Pesquera, Mazat lán, San Pedro de la Cueva </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Navojoa</td>
									<td align="center">3</td>
									<td align="center">Álamos, Etchojoa, Navojoa, Benito Juárez, Huatabampo</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>The municipality with the highest number of samples was Hermosillo with 45.45 % (175/385). In the serological analysis for the detection of anti-MAP antibodies, it was observed that the municipalities where doubtful samples were detected were Hermosillo (n = 3), Guaymas (n = 1), Huachinera (n = 1), Ures (n = 1), Villa Pesqueira (n = 1) and Fronteras (n = 1) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Fig. 2</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f4">
						<label>Figure 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Territorial units with MAP-positive samples</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-11-e403-gf4.gif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>There are several studies of seroprevalence of the disease, where samples with not reliable results are considered positive (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Velez <italic>et al.,</italic> 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Jaramillo <italic>et al.,</italic> 2017</xref>). The estimated apparent seroprevalence for the state was 2.08 % (8/385); these results coincide with that detected in Chihuahua by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Milián <italic>et al.</italic> (2015)</xref>) It is suggestive to note that, although Sonora also borders Sinaloa and Baja California, where higher seroprevalences were detected (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Milián <italic>et al.,</italic> 2015</xref>), the introduction of cattle into the state is prohibited due to its high sanitary status; this is because Sonora is in the eradication stage of <italic>Mycobacterium bovis</italic> (Bovine Tuberculosis). Among the official tests for the diagnosis of bovine tuberculosis in Mexico, the tuberculinization test is used, which are considered the ano-caudal fold test, comparative cervical and simple cervical. This test is highly sensitive and has low specificity, and the anus-rectal skin test is ideal to identify populations reacting to mycobacteria; therefore, to discriminate to whom this reaction could correspond, the double cervical comparative test is used (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">NOM-031-ZOO-1995</xref>).</p>
				<p>There are immunogenic similarities of MAP with <italic>Mycobacterium bovis</italic> that a sweep was made with the tuberculin test through the joint U.S.-Mexico Strategic Plan for collaboration in bovine tuberculosis 2013-2018, and that the state of Sonora has advanced as accredited modified advanced for the USDA (United States Department of Agriculture). The state strategy is based on the elimination of reactors and depopulation of herds positive to histopathology tests and bacterial isolation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">SENASICA, 2021</xref>). This has allowed great progress in the bovine tuberculosis campaign and indirectly minimized the presence of MAP in cattle in the state. There is evidence of seropositivity for MAP in sheep in the state (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Morales <italic>et al.,</italic> 2020</xref>); this increases the possibility that there is the presence of circulating MAP antibodies in the state and that at some point cattle have contact with the disease.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>CONCLUSIONS</title>
				<p>The results obtained in the present study demonstrate for the first time seropositivity to <italic>Mycobacterium avium</italic> subspecies <italic>paratuberculosis</italic> in cattle in Sonora. In addition, a low apparent seroprevalence was observed in the cattle population sampled. However, in order to have more information on the epidemiological behavior of this etiological agent in the cattle population of Sonora, it is necessary that in the future more analyses be carried out in productively active animals within the production units. On the other hand, the presence of MAP in Sonora, which is a neglected disease, highlights the need to know its possible role in public health in Mexico.</p>
			</sec>
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			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
					
					<p>Code: e2021-8.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
		</back>
	</sub-article>
</article>